Organisational

Behaviour
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about
how people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a
system approach. That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms
of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social system.
Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives,
organizational objectives, and social objectives. As you can see from the
definition above, organizational behavior encompasses a wide range of topics,
such as human behavior, change, leadership, teams, etc. Since many of these
topics are covered elsewhere in the leadership guide, this paper will focus on a
few parts of OB: elements, models, social systems, OD, work life, action learning,
and change.
Elements of Organizational Behavior :

The organization's base rests on management's philosophy, values, vision

and goals. This in turn drives the organizational culture which is composed
of the formal organization, informal organization, and the social
environment. The culture determines the type of leadership, communication,
and group dynamics within the organization. The workers perceive this as
the quality of work life which directs their degree of motivation. The final
outcome are performance, individual satisfaction, and personal growth and
development. All these elements combine to build the model or framework
that the organization operates from
Models of Organizational Behavior

There are four major models or frameworks that organizations operate out of:
Autocratic - The basis of this model is power with a managerial orientation of
authority. The employees in turn are oriented towards obedience and dependence
on the boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The performance
result is minimal.
Custodial - The basis of this model is economic resources with a managerial
orientation of money. The employees in turn are oriented towards security and
benefits and dependence on the organization. The employee need that is met is
security. The performance result is passive cooperation.
Supportive - The basis of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation
of support. The employees in turn are oriented towards job performance and
participation. The employee need that is met is status and recognition. The
performance result is awakened drives.
Collegial - The basis of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of
teamwork. The employees in turn are oriented towards responsible behavior and
self-discipline. The employee need that is met is self-actualization. The
performance result is moderate enthusiasm.
Although there are four separate models, almost no organization operates
exclusively in one. There will usually be a predominate one, with one or more
areas over-lapping in the other models. The first model, autocratic, has its roots in
the industrial revolution. The managers of this type of organization operate out of
McGregor's Theory X. The next three models begin to build on McGregor's
Theory Y. They have each evolved over a period of time and there is no one
"best" model. The collegial model should not be thought as the last or best model,
but the beginning of a new model or paradigm
Social Systems, Culture, and Individualization :

A social system is a complex set of human relationships interacting in many

ways. Within an organization, the social system includes all the people in it and
their relationships to each other and to the outside world. The behavior of one
member can have an impact, either directly or indirectly, on the behavior of
others. Also, the social system does not have boundaries...it exchanges goods,
ideas, culture, etc. with the environment around it. Culture is the conventional
behavior of a society that encompasses beliefs, customs, knowledge, and
practices. It influences human behavior, even though it seldom enters into their
conscious thought. People depend on culture as it gives them stability, security,
understanding, and the ability to respond to a given situation. This is why people
fear change. They fear the system will become unstable, their security will be
lost, they will not understand the new process, and they will not know how to
respond to the new situations.
Individualization is when employees successfully exert influence on the social
system by challenging the culture.
 Impact of Individual on an
High Organisation
Creative
Conformity Individualism

Socialisation
Isolation Rebellion
Low
Low Low High

The chart above (Schein, 1968) shows how individualization affects different organizations:
Too little socialization and too little individualization creates isolation.
Too high socialization and too little individualization creates conformity.
Too little socialization and too high individualization creates rebellion.
While the match that organizations want to create is high socialization and high
individualization for a creative environment. This is what it takes to survive in a
very competitive environment...having people grow with the organization, but
doing the right thing when others want to follow the easy path.
This can become quite a balancing act. Individualism favors individual rights,
loosely knit social networks, self respect, and personal rewards and careers. It
becomes look out for number 1! Socialization or collectivism favors the group,
harmony, and asks "What is best for the organization?" Organizations need people
to challenge, question, and experiment while still maintaining the culture that
binds them into a social system.
Organization Development:

Organization Development (OD) is the systematic application of behavioral science

knowledge at various levels, such as group, inter-group, organization, etc., to
bring about planned change. Its objectives is a higher quality of work-life,
productivity, adaptability, and effectiveness. It accomplishes this by changing
attitudes, behaviors, values, strategies, procedures, and structures so that the
organization can adapt to competitive actions, technological advances, and the
fast pace of change within the environment. There are seven characteristics of
OD:
Humanistic Values: Positive beliefs about the potential of employees (McGregor's
Theory Y).
Systems Orientation: All parts of the organization, to include structure, technology,
and people, must work together.
Experiential Learning: The learners' experiences in the training environment should
be the kind of human problems they encounter at work. The training should NOT
be all theory and lecture.
Problem Solving: Problems are identified, data is gathered, corrective action is
taken, progress is assessed, and adjustments in the problem solving process are
made as needed. This process is known as Action Research.
Contingency Orientation: Actions are selected and adapted to fit the need.
Change Agent: Stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate change.
Levels of Interventions: Problems can occur at one or more level in the organization
Quality of Work Life :

Quality of Work Life (QWL) is the favorableness or unfavorableness of the job

environment. Its purpose is to develop jobs and working conditions that are
excellent for both the employees and the organization. One of the ways of
accomplishing QWL is through job design. Some of the options available for
improving job design are:
Leave the job as is but employ only people who like the rigid environment or
routine work. Some people do enjoy the security and task support of these kinds of
jobs.
Leave the job as is, but pay the employees more.
Mechanize and automate the routine jobs.
And the area that OD loves - redesign the job.
When redesigning jobs there are two spectrums to follow - job enlargement and job
enrichment. Job enlargement adds a more variety of tasks and duties to the job so
that it is not as monotonous. This takes in the breadth of the job. That is, the
number of different tasks that an employee performs. This can also be
accomplished by job rotation. Job enrichment, on the other hand, adds additional
motivators. It adds depth to the job - more control, responsibility, and discretion to
how the job is performed. This gives higher order needs to the employee, as
opposed to job enlargement which simply gives more variety. The chart below
(Cunningham & Eberle, 1990) illustrates the differences
 Job Enrichment and Job
Higher Performance
Order Job Enrichment &
Job Enrichment Enlargement

Accent on
Needs Routine Job Job Enlargement
Lower
Order Few Variet Many
y of
task
The benefits of enriching jobs include :

Growth of the individual

Individuals have better job satisfaction
Self-actualization of the individual
Better employee performance for the organization
Organization gets intrinsically motivated employees
Less absenteeism, turnover, and grievances for the organization
Full use of human resources for society
Society gains more effective organizations
There are a variety of methods for improving job enrichment:
Skill Variety: Perform different tasks that require different skill. This differs from
job enlargement which might require the employee to perform more tasks, but
require the same set of skills.
Task Identity: Create or perform a complete piece of work. This gives a sense of
completion and responsibility for the product.
Task Significant: This is the amount of impact that the work has on other people as
the employee perceives.
Autonomy: This gives employees discretion and control over job related decisions.
Feedback: Information that tells workers how well they are performing. It can come
directly from the job (task feedback) or verbally form someone else.
Action Learning :

An unheralded British academic was invited to try out his theories in Belgium -- it led
to an upturn in the Belgian economy. "Unless your ideas are ridiculed by experts they
are worth nothing," says the British academic Reg Revans, creator of action learning [L
= P + Q] -- learning occurs through a combination of programmed knowledge (P) and
the ability to ask insightful questions (Q). Action learning has been widely used in
Europe for combining formal management training with learning from experience. A
typical program is conducted over a period of 6 to 9 months. Teams of learners with
diverse backgrounds conduct field projects on complex organizational problems
requiring use of skills learned in formal training sessions. The learning teams then meet
periodically with a skilled instructor to discuss, analyze, and learn from their
experiences.
Revans basis his learning method on a theory called "System Beta," in that the
learning process should closely approximate the "scientific method." The model is
cyclical - you proceed through the steps and when you reach the last step you relate
the analysis to the original hypothesis and if need be, start the process again. The
six steps are:
Formulate Hypothesis (an idea or concept)
Design Experiment (consider ways of testing truth or validity of idea or concept)
Apply in Practice (put into effect, test of validity or truth)
Observe Results (collect and process data on outcomes of test)
Analyze Results (make sense of data)
Compare Analysis (relate analysis to original hypothesis)
Note that you do not always have to enter this process at step 1, but you do have to
complete the process. Revans suggest that all human learning at the individual level
occurs through this process. Note that it covers what Jim Stewart (Managing
Change Through Training and Development, 1991) calls the levels of existence:
We think - cognitive domain
We feel - affective domain
We do - action domain
All three levels are interconnected -- e.g. what we think influences and is influenced
by what we do and feel.
Change :

In its simplest form, discontinuity in the work place is "change." Our prefrontal cortex
is similar to the RAM memory in a PC -- it is fast and agile computational device that
is able to hold multiple threads of logic at once so that we can perform fast
calculations. However it has its limits in that it can only hold a handful of concepts at
once. In addition, it burns lots of high energy glucose (blood sugar), which is
expensive for the body to produce. Thus when given lots of information, such as when
a change is required, it has a tendency to overload and being directly linked to the
amygdala (the emotional center of the brain) that controls our fight-or-flight response,
it can cause severe physical and psychological discomfort.
Our prefrontal cortex is marvelous for insight when not overloaded. But for normal
everyday use, our brain prefers to run off its "hard-drive" -- the basal ganglia, which
has a much larger storage area and stores memories and our habits. In addition, it sips
rather than gulps food (glucose).
When we do something familiar and predictable, our brain is mainly
using the basal ganglia, which is quite comforting to us. When we use
our prefrontal cortex, then we are looking for fight, flight, or insight.
Too much change produces fight or flight syndromes. As change agents
we want to produce "insight" into our learners so that they are able to
apply their knowledge and skills not just in the classroom, but also on
the job.
And the way to help people come to "insight" is to allow them to come
to their own resolution. These moments of insight or resolutions are
called "epiphanies" -- sudden intuitive leap of understanding that are
quite pleasurable to us and act as rewards. Thus you have to resist the
urge to fill in the entire picture of change, rather you have to leave
enough gaps so that the learners are allowed to make connections of
their own. Doing too much for the learners can be just as bad, if not
worse, than not doing enough.
Doing all the thinking for learners takes their brains out of action which
means they will not invest the energy to make new connections.
Reference:

Cunningham, J. B. & Eberle, T. (1990). "A Guide to Job Enrichment and Redesign,"
Personnel, Feb 1990, p.57 in Newstrom, J. & Davis, K. (1993).
Organization Behavior: Human Behavior at Work. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Knoster, T., Villa, R., & Thousand, J. (2000). A framework for thinking about systems
change. In R. Villa & J. Thousand (Eds.), Restructuring for caring and effective
education: Piecing the puzzle together (pp. 93-128). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes
Publishing Co.
Koch, C. (2006). The New Science of Change. CIO Magazine, Sep 15, 2006 (pp 54-
56). Also available on the web: http://www.cio.com/archive/091506/change.html
Revans, R. W. (1982). The Origin and Growth of Action Learning. Hunt, England:
Chatwell-Bratt, Bickley.
Schein, E. (1968). "Organizational Socialization and the Profession of Management,"
Industrial Management Review, 1968 vol. 9 pp. 1-15 in Newstrom, J. & Davis, K.
(1993). Organization Behavior: Human Behavior at Work. New York: McGraw-Hill.