1 Building Const 3
1 Building Const 3
1 Building Const 3
CONSTRUCTION
III
HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE,
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE AND
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3. HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRE-
Foundations Systems 3.1 STRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL
Foundation Walls, CONSTRUCTION
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
3.1 FOUNDATIONS
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
SYSTEMS (Deep &
Shallow Foundation)
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.1.1 SHALLOW FOOTINGS
Roof Decks
b. Stepped footings
Walls & Structural Walls 1. Individual footings
Pre-Stress Concrete
a. Block or square footings
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems 3.1 • needed to avoid the deep excavation CORE COLUMN
required for concrete footings, to be
Foundation Walls, distributed over a wide area of support
Basement Construction, GRILLAGE
Cisterns BEAMS
•used to give the required moment of
Reinforced Concrete resistance with a minimum of depth
GRILLAGE
Columns BEAMS
• foundation bed should first be covered with
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems a layer of impervious concrete not less than
6” in thickness CONCRETE
Roof Decks BASE
SLAB
•lower flanges carefully grouted so as to
Walls & Structural Walls
secure an even bearing
Pre-Stress Concrete
•concrete should be placed between and
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor CORE
Systems
around the beams so as to permanently COLUMN
protect them
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 1). Wood piles
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
4) Composite piles
Floor Systems
Pre-Stress Concrete
b. Cast-in-place piles
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction 1) Wood Piles
Foundations Systems 3.1
• for moderately high buildings on
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, a compressible soil saturated with
Cisterns water of considerable depth
Reinforced Concrete
Columns • are made from straight trunks of
Reinforced Concrete trees, not less than 5” in diameter
Floor Systems at small end for light buildings, or
Roof Decks 8” for heavy buildings
Walls & Structural Walls
• with an iron or steel cast conical
Pre-Stress Concrete point about 5 in. in dia., secured
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor by a long dowel with a ring
Systems around the end of the pile.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
DRIVING CONDITIONS
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
• driven by drop-hammer or steam-hammer,
Basement Construction, weights from1,500 to 2,500 lb., with fall varying
Cisterns
from 5 to 20 ft., the last blows being given with
Reinforced Concrete short falls
Columns
Pre-Stress Concrete • heavy timber grillages may also be used for capping
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor and are bolted to the top of the piles and the concrete
Systems footings laid on top of it.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
2) Concrete Piles
Construction
• used where wooden piles would be subject to decay or deterioration
Foundations Systems 3.1
by the action of marine worms
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns • advantageous for foundations on land where the permanent ground
water is at a considerable depth
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
• are generally reinforced concrete and of two general types: those
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems molded in place and those molded before driving
Roof Decks
• spaced from 2’ – 6” to 4’
Walls & Structural Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete •extended at least 4” into the concrete of the footing, and where a steel
casing surrounds the pile, 3 to 4 in. of concrete is required between
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems the top of the piles and the footing reinforcement
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
A) Pre-cast Piles
Construction
• are moulded in a yard or if at the site
Foundations Systems 3.1 allowed to cure for 4 weeks before using.
Foundation Walls, • are provided with a cast-iron point, and
Basement Construction,
Cisterns a driving head is used in which a cushion
of sand, rope or other material is placed
Reinforced Concrete between a driving block of wood and the
Columns concrete in order to prevent the crushing
of the pile.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
• are often sunk by means of water-jet.
Roof Decks This method is made possibly by
inserting an iron pipe in the center of the
Walls & Structural Walls pile.
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
• are generally 10 to 18 inches in
Columns diameter, having a thickness of
Reinforced Concrete
3/8 to 5/8 inches
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
• are driven in sections with a
steam-hammer and, as
Walls & Structural Walls
additional sections are required,
Pre-Stress Concrete these are attached to the driven
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor section by means of a cast-iron
Systems or steel internal sleeve and re-
driven. When the pipe has
reached its bearing level it is
cleaned out by blowing or dug
out by means of augers or
similar tools and concreted
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
4) Composite Piles
Foundations Systems 3.1 Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers
formed by boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, in the earth to a suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with
Cisterns concrete. For this reason they are also referred to as drilled piles
Reinforced Concrete or piers.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 3.2
FOUNDATION
Cisterns WALL
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 3.2
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 3.2
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 3.2
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 3.2
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
3.3 s/2
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Lo s h1/4
100 mm
Roof Decks
H/2
Walls & Structural Walls s 6bd
Splice
Pre-Stress Concrete
allowed 150 mm
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor Ash = 0.3(shcf’cfy)(Ag/Ach - 1)
Systems
h1 Ash = 0.09shcf’c/fy)
h 1 < h2
h2
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
• are short bars used to transfer
the stress at the bottom of the
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
columns to the footings
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
• use one dowel bar for each
3.3
Columns column bar
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems • total cross-sectional area of
Roof Decks dowels should not be less than
the cross-sectional area of
Walls & Structural Walls
longitudinal reinforcement in the
Pre-Stress Concrete column
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems • dowels shall extend into the
column and into the pedestal or
footing not less than 50 bars
diameter for plain bars or 40
diameters for deformed bars.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Construction
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
In general, there are six types of reinforced-concrete floors systems:
Basement Construction,
Cisterns 1.One way solid slab and beam
Reinforced Concrete 2.One way joist slab or ribbed slab
Columns 3.Two way solid slab and beam
Reinforced Concrete 4.Two way waffle slab
3.4
Floor Systems 5.Two way flat plate
Roof Decks 6.Two way flat slab
Walls & Structural Walls
Each particular system has its distinct advantages, depending upon the spacing,
Pre-Stress Concrete of columns, the magnitude of the loads to be supported, lengths of spans, and the
cost of construction. Although the arrangement of the plan of a building frequently
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
determines the column spacing, approximately square bays are desirable. Column
Systems
spacing of 20 ft., more or less, has proved to be most economical, but this, of
course, depends on the type of floor construction to be used.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
3.4.1 ONE-WAY SLABS
Construction
Foundations Systems
• consists of a solid slab supported by two parallel beams, the beams
framing into girders, and the girders in turn framing into columns.
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns • beams are spaced uniformly and generally frame into the girders at
Reinforced Concrete
the center, third or quarter points. This type of framing is called the
Columns beam-and-girder floor.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems • are economical for medium and heavy live loads for comparatively
Roof Decks short spans, 6 to 12 ft. (1.8 to 3.6 M). For light live loads, 40 to 60 psf,
the spans may be increased, but long spans for one-way slabs results
Walls & Structural Walls
in comparatively large dead loads.
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
For medium span lengths with light or medium live loads, ribbed slabs
have proved to have an economical type of floor construction. They are
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
not so well suited to heavy concentrated loads as the solid one or two-
Cisterns way slabs. A one-way joist slab consists of relatively small adjacent T-
Reinforced Concrete
beams. When the open spaces between the webs or rings are filled with
Columns clay tile, gypsum tile, concrete filler block or steel forms, the floor
Reinforced Concrete
system is called a ribbed slab.
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
When a floor panel is square or nearly so, having beams or walls on
four sides, it is generally economical to use two sets of reinforcing bars
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
placed at right angles to each other. These bars in two directions
Cisterns transfer the loads to the four supporting beams or walls. Slabs thus
Reinforced Concrete
reinforced are known as two way slabs or slabs supported on four
Columns sides.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems For square panels, with supports of equal rigidity, the live and dead
Roof Decks loads are distributed equally in both directions and the reinforcements
are the same each way. When the panel is oblong or rectangular, the
Walls & Structural Walls
greater part of the load is transmitted by the transverse or short
Pre-Stress Concrete reinforcement. If the length of the slab exceeds 1.5 times its width, the
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor entire load is usually assumed to be carried by the short reinforcement,
Systems and the long reinforcement used for shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement only; hence the slab would become a one-way slab.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
REBAR PLACEMENT
Construction
Foundations Systems
In determining the reinforcement of two-way slabs two strips of floor are
considered. One is middle strip, one half of the panel in width,
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
symmetrical about the panel center line, and extending through the
Cisterns length of the panel. The other is the column strip, one half of the panel
Reinforced Concrete
in width and occupying the two quarter-panel areas outside the middle
Columns strip. In placing the reinforcement it is advantageous to place the bars in
Reinforced Concrete
the short direction, carrying the greater load, under the longer bars.
3.4
Floor Systems Bars are bent up at fifth points and extend over the supports of the
Roof Decks quarter points of the adjoining slabs as is done for one-way slabs.
Walls & Structural Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
A waffle slab is a two way concrete slab reinforced by ribs in two
directions. Waffle slabs are able to carry heavier loads and span longer
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
distances than flat slabs.
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
A flat plate is a concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two or
more directions and supported directly by columns without beams or
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
girders. Simplicity of forming, lower floor-to-floor heights, and some
Cisterns flexibility in column placement make flat plates practical for apartment
Reinforced Concrete
and hotel construction.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
A flat-slab is a flat plate thickened at its column supports to increase its
shear strength and moment-resisting capacity. The slab is commonly
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
reinforced with bars running in two directions. This area of increased
Cisterns thickness is called a drop panel or drop. The columns are generally
Reinforced Concrete
square in cross section, but rectangular or circular cross sections are
Columns also used.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Walls & Structural Walls • ratio of length to width of flat-slab panels should not exceed 1.33
• thickness of slab through drop panel, if any, shall not be less than L/36;
Pre-Stress Concrete
thickness of slab with drop panels at points beyond the drop panel should not be
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor less than L/40
Systems • side of diameter of the drop panel shall be at least 0.33 times the span in the
parallel direction
• diameter of the column capital measured at the bottom of the slab or drop
panel (in feet) is generally taken between 0.20 and 0.25 L
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Reinforcements of Flat-slabs:
Foundations Systems
1. Two-way system. This system is the most commonly used and
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
consists of two sets of bars extending directly from column to column in
Cisterns both directions. Slabs are square or rectangular.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
2. Three-way system. The reinforcement extends from column to column,
the columns being placed at the corners of equilateral triangles; hence
Reinforced Concrete slabs are triangular in shape.
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 3. Four-way system. The reinforcement extends both directly and
diagonally between columns in both directions. The slabs are square or
Walls & Structural Walls
rectangular.
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete 1 2 3
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 1
Pre-Stress Concrete
2
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems
3
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
BEAMS IN GENERAL
Construction
Foundations Systems
A beam may be defined as a structural member, resting on supports
usually at its ends, which supports transverse loads. The loads that act
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
on the beam, as well as the weight of the beam itself, tend to bend
Cisterns rather than lengthen or shorten it. A girder is a term applied to a beam
Reinforced Concrete
that supports one or smaller beams.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, d/4
Cisterns 50 mm
s 8db (longitudinal bars)
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 24db (hoops)
Reinforced Concrete 300 mm
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Foundation Walls, a. Simple beams. These are c. Continuous beams. These are
Basement Construction, beams having a single span with beams resting on more than two
Cisterns
a support at each end, there supports. The term “semi-
Reinforced Concrete being no restraint at the continuous” is also frequently
Columns
supports. used in reinforced-concrete. It
Reinforced Concrete refers to a beam having two
3.4
Floor Systems
b. Cantilever beams. These are spans with little or no restraint at
Roof Decks beams that are supported at one the two extreme ends of the
Walls & Structural Walls end only, or they may be that beam. The end span of a
portion of beams projecting continuous beam, where little or
Pre-Stress Concrete
beyond one of its supports. restraint is provided at the end
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor support, is also referred to as a
Systems
semi-continuous beam.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
3.4.8 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Construction
Beam Loading and Internal Stresses:
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls, When a beam is subjected to a given load, the beam reacts inn the following
Basement Construction,
manner:
Cisterns
• At midspan; it is bent downwards, the lower part of the beam is in tension,
Reinforced Concrete and is resisted by the steel; while the upper part is in compression and is
Columns resisted by concrete.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems • At the supports, the upper surface of the beam becomes concave downward;
that is, there is a reversal of stresses. The upper portion of the beam is now in
Roof Decks
tension ( or the bending moment is said to change from positive to negative).
Walls & Structural Walls
• The section of a beam at which the bending moment changes from positive
Pre-Stress Concrete
to negative is called the point of inflection.
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems • The exact position of inflection points depends upon the position and
magnitude of the loads as well as the end conditions of the beams. For
continuous beams having equal spans and uniformly distributed loads, the
inflection point is considered to be one-fifth the clear span between faces of
support.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Rebar Placement:
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
• Bent-up Method: At the inflection point some of the reinforcing bars are bent
Foundations Systems up at an angle of from 30 to 45 degrees and extend over the supports into the
Foundation Walls, adjacent spans. The bent up bars serve to resist the tensile stresses over the
Basement Construction, supports. Thus for continuous beams with uniformly distributed loads the bars
Cisterns would be bent up at one-fifth the clear span from the face of the supports and
Reinforced Concrete extend to the quarter points of the adjacent span. Not more than half of the
Columns bars should be bent up; the rest of the reinforcement extends straight through
the center of the supports.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
• Straight Method: Another method is to use separate straight bars in both the
Roof Decks bottoms and tops of the beams in place of bent bars. The slight cost in excess
Walls & Structural Walls weight in this arrangement over the combination of straight and bent bars is
probably balanced by the ease of preparing design and shop drawings, bill of
Pre-Stress Concrete
materials, and fabrication and placing of reinforcement. Bars not fabricated
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor according to drawings, or those lost and mislaid, are more easily replaced if no
Systems bending is involved.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Diagonal Tension in Beams:
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
• In addition to the tensile and compressive stresses in a beam subjected to
Foundations Systems bending, there are also inclined tensile stresses. If a concrete beam is
Foundation Walls, reinforced with longitudinal steel only, these diagonal stresses tend to produce
Basement Construction, cracks which are vertical at the center of the span and become more inclined
Cisterns as they approach the support where they slope towards the center at an angle
Reinforced Concrete of about 45. The stresses that cause these cracks are known as diagonal
Columns tension.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.4 • To prevent failure due to diagonal tension additional reinforcing bars are
used. Sloping bars placed at right angles to the direction of these cracks
Roof Decks would be one method of reinforcing for diagonal tension, but, although this is
Walls & Structural Walls sometimes done, it is not the most economical method.
Pre-Stress Concrete •The usual procedure is to add #3 or #4 bars, bent in the shape of the letter U,
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor in vertical positions at those points along the beam length at which the
Systems diagonal tension stresses require their use. When the stresses are sufficiently
large. W-shaped bars are used. These bent reinforcing bars are called
stirrups. They should always have hooks at the ends to provide anchorage to
resist the tensile stresses.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Shearing Stresses in Beams:
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Reinforcement used to resist shearing stresses is known as web
Foundations Systems reinforcement. Ties are frequently used for web reinforcement in place of
Foundation Walls, stirrups. A tie is generally made of #3 bars, but it completely encircles the
Basement Construction, longitudinal tensile steel instead of being U-shaped with hooks. These are
Cisterns called closed stirrups or ties.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns Rebar Spacing:
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.4 • Although it is occasionally necessary to put in two or more layers of steel,
particularly in large girders carrying heavy loads, it is usually more
Roof Decks economical to slightly widen a beam, thereby permitting all of the main tensile
Walls & Structural Walls reinforcement to lie in the same plane.
Pre-Stress Concrete • Minimum clear distance between bars should not be less than the nominal
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor diameters of the bars, not less than 1”, nor less than 1-1/2 times the
Systems maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
• If more than one layer is used the clear vertical distance between layers
shall not be less than 1”, and the bars in the upper layer shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer.
Pre-Stress Concrete
3. Beam with Compression Reinforcement.
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor These are beams with reinforcement in the
Systems compression as well as the tension side of
the beam, hence they are also called
double reinforced beams. In this type of
beam no bent up bars are required. Beams
with compression reinforcement are used
when the cross-sectional dimensions of
the beam are limited by architectural or
structural conditions so that there is an
insufficient concrete area for the
compressive stresses.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed 4. Cantilever Beams. The tensile
Concrete & Steel 3.0
reinforcement is located at top of the
Construction
beam and inverted U-stirrups are
Foundations Systems provided.
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 5. Hollow box girders. These are double
reinforced beams used for long spans. In
Reinforced Concrete order to reduce the dead load (the
3.4
Floor Systems weight of the beam) it is hollowed in the
center of the section. Diaphragms are
Roof Decks
provided at intervals throughout the
Walls & Structural Walls length of the beam. Truss
Main Reinforcements
(X-bars)
Pre-Stress Concrete
Z-bars
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems
6. Beam Brackets (Corbels). Short beam
Y-bars
extensions from columns used to support
X-bars Z-bars
rafters or trusses.
Y-bars Y&Z
-bars
Corbel
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.5 ROOF DECKS
Construction
Foundations Systems Reinforced concrete roof slabs (roof decks) are formed and sitecast in
Foundation Walls,
the same manner as concrete floor systems. Roof decks are normally
Basement Construction, covered with a type of membrane roofing for insulation and
Cisterns waterproofing.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete 2. Curtain wall. The enclosing wall of an iron or steel framework or the
Columns non-bearing portion of an enclosing wall between piers.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3. Foundation wall. That portion of an enclosing wall below the first tier
Roof Decks of joists.
Walls & Structural Walls 3.6
4. Retaining wall. A subsurface wall built to resist the lateral pressure of
Pre-Stress Concrete
internal loads.
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems
5. Spandrel wall. The space between any arch and the beam over the
same; or an exterior non-bearing wall in skeleton construction built
between columns or piers and wholly supported at each story.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
1. Panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer surface
may or may not form the exterior facing of the building and whose
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
interior surface may or may not form the interior finish. It may rest on
Cisterns the building structure or may be hung from the structure.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns Masonry panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer
Reinforced Concrete
surface may form the exterior building face or it may be used as a back-
Floor Systems up wall of a panel curtain wall.
Roof Decks a) Stone Masonry Panels
b) Pre-cast Masonry Panels
Walls & Structural Walls 3.6
Pre-Stress Concrete 2. Panel curtain walls are exterior non-load bearing walls made up of
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor panels attached directly to the building structure with an adjustable
Systems attachment or mounted on supports (subframe), which in turn, are
attached to the building structure by adjustable attachments. Exterior
face of panels form the face of the building; interior face may or may not
form the interior finish.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
TYPES OF MASONRY PANEL WALLS
Construction
Foundations Systems
a) Stone Masonry Panels. Natural or artificial stone slabs which are
anchored to the building structure by masonry anchors
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Pressure differential between the outside atmosphere and an interior
environment can cause rainwater to migrate through even the smallest
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
openings in wall joints. Pressure-equalized design can significantly
Cisterns reduce this cause of water leakage in wall construction by employing
Reinforced Concrete
the rainscreen principle.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
1. Skin type panel. Panel made up of one material
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
2. Sandwich type panel. Panel made up of assembly of several
Cisterns materials
Reinforced Concrete
a. Open Sandwich type. Sandwich panel with top and bottom
Columns edges closed
Reinforced Concrete
b. Closed Sandwich type. Sandwich panel in which all edges of
Floor Systems panel are closed except for weep holes and vents
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
A retaining wall is a wall whose purpose is to resist the thrust of a bank
of earth or other material. It is differentiated from breast walls which is
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
similar to the retaining wall, in that in the retaining the earth or other
Cisterns filling is deposited behind it after it is built, while the breast wall (or face
Reinforced Concrete
wall) is built to prevent the fall of earth which is in its undisturbed,
Columns natural position, but from which part has been excavated, leaving a
Reinforced Concrete
vertical or inclined face.
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems The concrete in the conventional reinforced-concrete beam is not used
Foundation Walls,
economically. With respect to bending stresses, only the concrete
Basement Construction, above the neutral surface resists compressive stresses. All the concrete
Cisterns in the tension area, below the neutral axis, is disregarded in designing
Reinforced Concrete because concrete is inherently weak in tension. Therefore, only about
Columns one-third of the concrete resists compressive stresses, the maximum
Reinforced Concrete stress being at the top of the beam, with the stresses decreasing in
Floor Systems
magnitude to a zero stress at the neutral surface. Since in the usual
Roof Decks reinforced-concrete beam the concrete cannot be used efficiently,
Walls & Structural Walls
certain forces may be applied to beams that result in a member in which
all the concrete resists bending stresses. This is known as prestressed
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
concrete. A prestressed concrete beam is a member so designed and
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor constructed that all of the stresses in the concrete resulting from
Systems
bending are compressive, none is tensile. The name is derived from the
fact that the stresses are applied before the beam is loaded.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
There are two methods of prestressed concrete, namely:
Construction
Foundations Systems
1. Pre-tensioning or bonded prestressing. In this method the reinforcing
steel is first prestressed and then the concrete is poured. When the
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
concrete has developed strength, the stress in the steel is released.
Cisterns The steel when stretched out becomes smaller in cross-section than
Reinforced Concrete
when unstressed, and the concrete hardens around them while they are
Columns still small. When their artificial tension is released after the concrete
Reinforced Concrete
hardens, they expand, reverting to their original shape, grip the
Floor Systems surrounding concrete. The bond between the concrete and steel is
Roof Decks sufficient to create compression in the concrete.
Walls & Structural Walls
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Foundations Systems
1. It is economical of materials due to the use of higher steel and
concrete stresses.
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns 2. It eliminates cracks because the concrete is always in compression.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 3. It has remarkable elastic properties. For example, tests were made
Reinforced Concrete
on a floor slab only 1-5/8” thick reinforced with not more than 1% steel.
Floor Systems Although the span was only 10 ft. the slab deflected 3” under a load of
Roof Decks 1070lb. at its center. When the load was removed it returned to its
original level, undamaged.
Walls & Structural Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7 4. Beams do not have to be cast at the side in one form, but may be
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor cast in small sections or blocks at the factory with reinforcing wires
Systems threaded through them. When the wires are stressed, the small units
are brought together like one large beam.
Foundations Systems Pre-stressed concrete is used where spans and loads cannot be
Foundation Walls, adequately designed in reinforced-concrete, and for deckings, beams,
Basement Construction, girders and other prefabricated units where greater spans and loads
Cisterns
with thinner, stronger, and in some cases, lighter members are
Reinforced Concrete required.
Columns
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete