METHODS OF

EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH

SAMPLING

Marvien Barrios
Instructor Group 1
 Sampling

What is SAMPLING?
- A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger
population.
- Sampling means selecting the group that you will
actually collect data from in your research.

EXAMPLE:

A researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a

population of 5000.
He/she numbers each elements of the population from 1-5000 and will
choose every 10th individual to be a part of sample ( Total population/
Sample size = 10).
THE SAMPLE SIZE

JENNIFER V. PAGATPATAN
MAED IC
 The Sample Size

What is sample size?

 Refers to the number of participants or

observations included in a study. This
number is usually represented by n.
 The Sample Size

 The size of a sample influences two

statistical properties:
1. The precision of our estimates and
2. ) the power of the study to draw
conclusions.
www.iwh.on>sample-size
 The Sample Size

 Thelarger the sample size the more

accurate the findings from a study.
 The Sample Size

IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING
 saves money and time.
 directly related to the cost of a study,
the more representative the sample, the
lower the sample size needed.
 The Sample Size

IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING
 
 Few census designs would satisfy the
value of information constraint in
marketing research.
 be more accurate than a census.
 The Sample Size

 A sample is better in the event that the

study results in the destruction or
contamination of the element sampled
 The Sample Size

WHAT IS SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

  When a representative sample is taken

from a population, the finding are
generalized to the population
 The Sample Size

Sample size. Confidence levels and confidence

intervals for random samples

Confidence level 90 per Confidence level 95 per Confidence level 99

cent cent per cent
Population

Confidence Confidence Confidence

30 27 28 29

50 42 44 45

75 59 63 67
 Qualitative Data
 It is defined as the data that approximates and
characterizes.
 It can be observed and recorded.
 This data type is non-numerical in nature.
 It is collected through methods of observation, one-to-
one interviews, conducting focus groups, and similar
methods.
 Qualitative data in statistics is also known as
categorically based on the attributes and properties of a
thing or a phenomenon.
 Quantitative Data
 It is defined as a group of quantifiable information that
can be used for mathematical computations and statistic
analysis which informs real-life decisions.
 For example: a manufacturing company will need an
answer to the question, “How much is the production
cost?”.
SAMPLING ERRORS
 SAMPLING ERROR
Sampling error refers to differences between
sample and the population that exist only
because of the observations that happened to
be selected for the sample.
TYPES OF ERRORS:
 POPULATION SPECIFICATION ERROR
 SAMPLE FRAME ERROR
 SELECTION ERROR
 NON-RESPONSE ERROR
POPULATION SPECIFICATION ERROR
 This error occurs when the researcher does not
understand who they should survey.
 For example: Imagine a survey about breakfast
cereal consumption to families.
SAMPLE FRAME ERROR
 A frame error occurs when the wrong
subpopulation is used to select a sample.
 For example, say a researcher is doing a national
study. Their list might be drawn from a
geographic map area that accidentally includes a
small corner of a foreign territory- and therefore
include respondents who are not relevant to the
scope of the study.
SELECTION ERROR
 This occurs when respondents self-select their
participation in the study- only those that are
interested respond. It can also be introduced from the
researcher’s side as a non-random sampling error.
 For example, if a researcher puts out a call for
responses on social media, they’re going to get
responses from people they know, and of those
people, only the more helpful or affable individuals
will reply.
NON-RESPONSE ERROR
 Non-response errors occur when respondents are
different than those who do not respond.
 For example, say you’re a company doing market
research in advance of launching a new product.
You might get a disproportionate level of
participation from your existing customers, since
they know who you are, and miss out on hearing
from a broader pool of people who don’t yet buy
from you.
 The
Representativeness of
the Sample
 The Representativeness of the
Sample

 What is representative sample?

- a small quantity or a subset of something larger. It
represents the same properties and proportions like that of a
larger population.
 The Representativeness of the
Sample

EXAMPLE:

A classroom of 30
students with 15 males and
15 females could generate
a representation sample
that might include six
students: three (3) males
and three (3) females.
EXAMPLE:

A brand is about to launch a new product in a US city.

It will be practically impossible to send a survey to collect
insights into the product’s features from every person in the
city.
Therefore, researchers collect a small sample of people
who will represent the city’s population, and a survey can
be deployed to them to manage their feedback on the
product.
 The Representativeness of the
Sample

EXAMPLE:
Variable: How far does your liking of the form teacher
In a secondary school affect your attitude to school work?
where half of the students are Very A Some- Quite A very
little little what a lot great
male and half are female, deal
consider pupil’s responses to Male 10
Female 50
20
80
30
30
25
25
15
15
the question “How far does Total 60 100 60 50 30

your liking of the form

teacher affect your attitude We have to observe that twice as may girls as
boys are included in the sample, and this is
to work?” unfair representation of the population of the
school, which comprises of 50% girls and 50%
boys.

Male: 100 representative

Female: 200 representative
 The Representativeness of the
Sample

EXAMPLE:
Variable: How far does your liking of the form teacher
In a secondary school affect your attitude to school work?
where half of the students are Very A Some- Quite A very
little little what a lot great
male and half are female, deal
consider pupil’s responses to Male 20
Female 50
40
80
60
30
50
25
30
15
the question “How far does Total 60 100 60 50 30

your liking of the form

teacher affect your attitude Here equalizing the sample to represent more
fairly the population. Which comprises of 50%
to work?” girls and 50% boys.

Male: 200 representative

Female: 200 representative
 The Representativeness of the
Sample

 Researcher needs to consider the importance of the

sample in fact that represents the whole population in
question, if it is to be a valid sample.

 Researcher needs to be clear on what is being

represented, to set the parameter characteristics of the
wider population.
 The Access to the Sample
 Access is a key issue and is an early factor that must be
decided in research. Researchers will need to ensure that
access is not only permitted but also, in fact, practicable.

Example: If a researcher were to conduct research into

truancy and unauthorized absence from school, and decided
to interview a sample of truants, the research might never
commence as the truants, by definition, would not be present.
 The Access to the Sample

 Similarly access to sensitive areas might be not only difficult

but also problematical both legally and administratively.

Example: Access to child abuse victims, child abusers,

disaffected students, drug addicts, school refusers, bullies and
victims of bullying.

 In some sensitive areas access to a sample might be denied by

the potential sample participants themselves.

Example: AIDS counsellors might be seriously distressed by

their work that they simply cannot face discussing with a
researcher the subject matter of their traumatic work.
 The Access to the Sample

-Access might also be denied by the potential sample

participants themselves for very practical reasons.

Example: A doctor or a teacher simply might not have the

time to spend with the researcher.

-Access might be denied by people who have something to

protect.

Example: A school which has recently received a very poor

inspection result or poor results on external examinations or
people who have made an important discovery or a new
invention and who do not wish to disclose the secret of their
success.
 The Access to the Sample

 Access is guarded by “gatekeepers” – people who can

control researcher’s access to those whom they really want
to target. For School, Example:
 Head teachers, school governors, school secretaries; for
pupils this might be friends, gang members, parents, and
etc.
The Sampling Strategy to be Used

There are two main methods of sampling (Cohen and Holliday 1979;
1982; 1996; Schofield 1996). The researcher must decide whether to opt
for a probability (also known as a random sample) or a non-probability
sample (also known as a purposive sample).
The difference between them is this:

in a probability sample the chances of

• Probability members of the wider population being
selected for the sample are known.

whereas in a nonprobability
sample the chances of members of the
• Non-Probability
wider population being selected for the
sample are unknown.
 The Sampling Strategy to be
used

Probability sample - every member of the wider population has and equal
chance of being included in the sample; inclusion or exclusion from the
sample is a matter of chance and nothing else.

Non-probability sample - some members of the wider population

definitely will be excluded and others definitely included (i.e. every member
of the wider population does not have an equal chance of being included in
the sample).

 In this latter type the researcher has deliberately – purposely – selected a

particular section of the wider population to include in or exclude from
the sample.
 Probability and Non-
probability
PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON - PROBABILITY
SAMPLING

 means that every  Individuals are based on

member of the random criteria and not
population has a nice of everyone has the chance to
being selected. be included.
 It is mainly used in  It is mainly used in
Quantitative Research. If Exploratory and
you want to produce Qualitative Research.
results that are represents  The aim is not to test the
the whole population, hypothesis about a broad
probability sampling population but to develop
techniques are most valid an initial understanding of
choice. a small or under-
researched population.
 Probability and Non-
probability
SAMPLING METHODS

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON- PROBABILITY

METHODS SAMPLING METHODS

Simple Random Sampling Convenience Sampling

Volunteer Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Quota Sampling
Stage Sampling
Dimensional Sampling

Multi-phase Sampling Theoretical Sampling

PROBABILTY SAMPLING
METHODS
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
Simple Random Sampling
- is a randomly selected subset of a 
population. In this sampling method, each
member of the population has an exactly
equal chance of being selected
- This method is the most straightforward of
all the probability sampling methods, since it
only involves a single random selection and
requires little advance knowledge about the
population. Because it uses randomization,
any research performed on this sample
should have high internal and external 
validity.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
When to use simple random sampling?
METHODS
Simple random sampling is used to make statistical
inferences about a population. It helps ensure high
 internal validity: randomization is the best method to reduce
the impact of potential confounding variables.In addition,
with a large enough sample size, a simple random sample has
high external validity: it represents the characteristics of the
larger population.
However, simple random sampling can be challenging to
implement in practice. To use this method, there are some
prerequisites:
- You have a complete list of every member of the population.
- You can contact or access each member of the population if
they are selected.
- You have the time and resources to collect data from the
necessary sample size.
Simple random sampling works best if you have a lot of
time and resources to conduct your study, or if you are
studying a limited population that can easily be sampled
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS

 Systematic Sampling
 This method is a modified form of
simple random sampling. It
involves selecting subjects from a
population list in a systematic
rather than a random fashion.
 It is one form of random
sampling.
 This type of probability sample
members from a larger
population are selected according
to a random starting point but
with fixed, periodic interval.
Example:

If from a population of 2000, a sample of 100 is required, then every twentieth

person can be selected. The starting point of the selection is chosen at random.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS

One can decide how frequently to

make systematic sampling by a
simple statistic.
The total number of the wider
population being represented divided
by the sample size required.

f = frequency interval
N
f = sn
N = the total number of the wider
population
sn = the required number in the sample.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS

Example:
Let us say that the researcher is
working with a school of 1,400
students; by looking at the table of
sample size (Box 4.1) required for a
random sample of these 1,400
students we see that 302 students
are required to be in the sample.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS

The frequently interval (f) is:

1,400 = 4.635 (which rounds up 5.0)

302

Hence, the researcher would pick out

every fifth name on the list of cases.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS

Stratified Sampling
 Defined as a strategy for selecting samples in such
a way that specific sub-groups (strata) will have
sufficient number of representatives within the
sample to provide sample numbers for sub analysis
of the members of these sub groups.
 The strata is formed based on some characteristics
in the population data.

To organize a stratified random sample is a simple

two stage process
First: Identify the characteristics that appear in the
sample.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS

Second: Randomly sample within these group the size of each

group being determined either judgement of researcher or by
reference

Example:
You will find that there were almost 7000 graduate in the
University for the year. You might decide to just take simple
random sample of 3000 graduates and run a survey. Better still
you could divide the population into strata. To do this you
would create population group based on gender, age, range,
race nationality etc. A random sample of each stratum is taken
in a number proportional to the stratums size when compared
to the population. These subset of the strata are then pooled to
form a random sample
“
Cluster sampling is a form
of random sampling that
separates a population into
clusters to create a sample.

45
 Primary Sampling Methods

 One-staged sampling
 In one-stage sampling, all elements in
each selected cluster are sampled.

 Two-staged sampling
 In two-stage sampling, simple random
sampling is applied within each cluster to
select a subsample of elements in each
cluster.

46
3 Stages for the Application of Cluster
Sampling:
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3

Select a cluster Mark each cluster Choose a sample of

grouping as a with a unique clusters applying
sampling frame. number. probability sampling.

47
CONCLUSIONS:
 Elements of a  Members from  The key
population are randomly objective is to
randomly selected clusters minimize the
selected to be a are a part of this cost involved and
part of groups sample. enhance
(clusters). competence.

48
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
 Stage Sampling
 is an extension of cluster sampling.
 It involves selecting the sample in stages that is
taking sample from samples.

Example:

Using the large community example in cluster sampling, one type of

stage sampling is to select a number of schools at random and for within
each of these school, select a number of classes at random and from within
those classes, select a number of students.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
Example:
 A researcher wants to administer a questionnaire to all 16-year-old students in each of
eleven secondary schools in one region.
 Out of eleven schools, there are 2,000 16-year-olds on roll.

1st Stage:
List the eleven schools on a piece of paper and then to write the names of the eleven
schools on the small cards and place each card in a container, puts a tally mark by the
appropriate school on her list and return the card to the container.
The process is repeated 321 times, bringing the total to 322.

School 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Total
Required no. of 22 31 32 24 29 20 35 28 32 38 31 322
students
2nd Stage:
The researcher then approaches the eleven schools and asks each of them to select
randomly the required number of students for each school.
Randomness has been maintained in two stages and a large number (2,000) has been
rendered manageable.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
 Multi-Phase Sampling
 A large sampling design in which required
information is collected from a large sample units,
and additional information is collected from the
sub-samples of the whole sample either at the
same time or later stage.

Example:

Phase 1 – the selection of the sample might be based on the criterion of

geography.
Phase 2 – might be based on an economic criterion.
Phase 3 – might be based on the political criterion.
 NON - PROBABILTY
SAMPLING METHODS
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
 Convenience Sampling
 It is sometimes called,
accidental or opportunity
sampling.
 A convenience sample simply
includes the individuals who
happen to be most accessible
to the researcher.
 Select any members of the
population who are
conveniently and readily
available.
 You are researching opinions about student support services in your
Example:
university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow
students to complete a survey.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
 Advantages of using Convenience Sampling:
 1. collect data quickly
 2. inexpensive to create samples
 3. easy to do research
 4. low cost
 5. readily available sample
 6. fewer rules to follow

 Disadvantages of using Convenience Sampling:

 1. An inability to generalize the results of the survey to the
population as a whole.
 2. Biased results, due to the reasons why some people
choose to take part and some do not.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
 Quota Sampling
-you identify a set of important characteristics of population and the
select your desired samples in a non-random way.
Types of quota sampling:
1. Controlled
2. Uncontrolled

Quota sampling can be applied in the following manner:

1. Dividing the population into specific groups.

2. Calculating a quota for each group.  
3. Determining specific condition(s) to be met and quota in each
group.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS

Example:

 A researcher wants to survey individuals about what smartphone

brand they prefer to use he/she considers a sample size of 500
respondents. Also, he/she only interested in surveying ten states in
the US. Therefore, here is the researcher can divide the population by
quotas.

 Gender: 250 Female; 250 males

 Age: 100 respondents between the ages of 16-20, 21-30,41-50, and
51+
 Location: 50 respondents per state
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
 Purposive Sampling
- a sample has been chosen for a
specific purpose.
 it is used to access “knowledgeable
people” those who have in-depth
knowledge about a particular
issues.
 The researcher handpick the cases
to be included in the sample on the
basis of their judgement of their
typicality of the particular
characteristics being sought. They
build up a sample that is
satisfactory to their specific needs.
Example:
You may be conducting a study why high school students choose
community college over university. You might canvas high school
students and your first question would be “Are you planning to attend
college?”. People who answers “No” would be excluded from the study.
 VARIANT OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
 Boosted Sample – the researcher will deliberately seek to
include those who may otherwise be excluded from,or under-
represented in a sample because there are few of them.
 Negative Case Sampling – the researcher deliberately seeks
those people who might disconfirm the theories
being advanced, thereby its strengthening the theory if it
survives disconfirm cases.

 Maximum Variation Sampling – a softer version of negative

case sampling.
- Selecting cases from as diverse population as
possible.It is to ensure strength and richness to the data, their
applicability and their interpretation.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS

 Dimensional Sampling
 is an extension of Quota Sampling.
 it involves in identifying various factors of interest in a
population and obtaining at least one respondent of every
combination of those factors.
- the researcher takes into account several characteristics
such as gender, age, income, residence, and education.
- The researcher must ensure that there is at least a
representation each of chosen characteristics.
Example:

Out of 10 people the researcher ensures they have interviewed 2 people that
are at a certain gender, 2 for certain age group, and 2 who have an income
between 10,000-15,000.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
Snowball Sampling
-also known as Chain-referral sampling
-can be used to recruit participants via other
participants.

Types of Snowball Sampling:

1. Linear Snowball Sampling

2. Exponential
non-discriminative
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS

3. Exponential discriminative

When to use Snowball Sampling?

1. No official list of names of the members
2. Difficulty to locate people
3. People who are not willing to be identified
4. Secretiveness about their identity

Example:
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city since there is no
list of all homeless people in the city , probability sampling isn’t possible. You
meet one person who agrees to participate in the research and she puts you in
contact with other homeless people that she knows in the area.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS

 Volunteer Sampling
 It is mainly based on ease
access. Instead of the researcher
choosing participants and
directly contacting them people
volunteer themselves.
 Participants volunteer to take
part in different research studies
to share their opinion on topics
that interest them.

Example:

Using costumer satisfaction survey. After a business provides a service they

often ask costumers to report on their satisfaction because the business is asking
all costumers to volunteer their thoughts, the sample is voluntary and susceptible
to bias.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS

Factors to consider in making voluntary sample questions:

1. Keep questions short and clear.
2. Avoid leading questions.
3. Break down different concepts.
4. Provide exhaustive answer.
5. Use precise straightforward language.
6. Do not influence the answer.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Volunteer Sampling

Advantages Disadvantages

 Simple way to conduct  Subject to bias.

study.  Errors in data quality.
 Inexpensive  The research is likely to
 Data is easy to access and comprised of strongly
easy to gather. opinionated people.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS

Example:

• Using costumer satisfaction survey. After a business provides a

service or goods they often ask costumers to report on their
satisfaction. The sample is voluntary and susceptible to bias.
 NON- PROBABILITY
SAMPLING METHODS
 Theoretical Sampling
- is a feature of “Grounded Theory”.
 is the process of data collecting for generating theory
whereby the analyst jointly collects, encodes and
analyses his data and divides what the data to collect
next and where to find them, in order to develop his
theory as it emerges (Glasser and Strauss 1967).
 It is used to determine a new theory based on data,
such as when practicing a grounded theory method of
research.
 There is no pre-set notion of who to recruit or
predetermined groups of people to compare because
the process of collecting, coding and analyzing the
data happens simultaneously.
 This sampling process is entirely controlled by the
emerging theory.
PLANNING A
SAMPLING
STRATEGY
 Planning a Sampling Strategy

There are several steps in planning

the sampling strategy:
1. Decide whether you need a sample, or
whether it is possible to have the whole
population.

2. Identify the population, its important

features (the sampling frame) and its size.
 Planning a Sampling Strategy

3. Identify the kind of sampling strategy you

require (e.g. which variant of probability and
non-probability sample you require).

4. Ensure that access to the sample is guaranteed. If

not, be prepared to modify the sampling strategy
(step 2).

5. For probability sampling, identify the confidence

level and confident intervals that you require.
 Planning a Sampling Strategy

6. Calculate the numbers required in the

sample, allowing for non-response,
incomplete or spoiled responses, attrition
and sample mortality, i.e. build in
redundancy.
7. Decide how to gain and manage access
and contact (e.g. advertisement, letter,
telephone, email, personal visit, personal
contacts/friends.
 Planning a Sampling Strategy

8. Be prepared to weight (adjust) the

data, once collected.
CONCLUSION
 Conclusion

This chapter has suggested that it all depends on:

• Population size
• Confidence level and confidence interval required
• Accuracy required (the smallest sampling error sought)
• Number of strata required
• Number of variables included in the study
• Variability of the factor under study
• the kind of sample (different kinds of sample within probability
and non-probability sampling)
• representativeness of the sample
• allowances to be made for attrition and nonresponse
 Group 1 – MAED Section C

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