Earths Interior
Earths Interior
Earths Interior
Objectives:
1. Describe the science of
geology
2. Describe the main layers
of Earth’s interior
Definition: geology is the study
of planet Earth, including its
composition and structure
Definition: uniformitarianism
is the idea that the geologic
processes that operate today
also operated in the past
• Earth can be divided into 3 main layers: the
crust, the mantle and the core
• Definition: the crust is the rocky outer layer of
Earth
• We walk on the continental crust which
contains silicates
• Definition: silicates are rocks made up of silicon
& oxygen and often contain aluminum, iron or
calcium
• Aluminum is the most abundant element in
Earth’s crust
• Two types of crust exist: continental crust
and oceanic crust
• Definition: continental crust is the rocks
that make up the continents
• The rocks are less dense like granite
• Continental crust ranges in thickness
from 8 to 75 kilometers
• Definition: oceanic crust is the rocks that
make up the ocean bottom
• Oceanic crust ranges about 7 kilometers
thick & is thin and dense compared to
continental crust
Definition: the mantle is the layer of
Earth beneath the crust
The mantle is thick & made of hot, solid
rock
It is about 2850 kilometers thick
The mantle has 3 layers: the lithosphere,
asthenosphere, and mesosphere
The lithosphere is about 100 km thick &
consists of cool rigid rock including the
uppermost part of the mantle and the
crust
The asthenosphere is located beneath the
lithosphere
Is is weaker, softer rock thought to have
the consistency of bubble gum
It is believed to flow slowly
The mesosphere is located underneath
the asthenosphere
The mesosphere consists of stiffer rock
The mesosphere extends all the way
down to the upper surface of Earth’s core
• The third and final main layer of Earth is
called the core
• There are 2 parts to the core: the outer core
and the inner core
• Scientists think that the core consists of
metals, mostly nickel and some lighter
elements
• There is enormous pressure at Earth’s core
and the temperature is thought to be about
5500°C (nearly equal to sun’s surface)
• In the outer core, high temperatures keep
the metal liquid
Because of Earth’s rotation, the
flowing iron in the outer core is
believed to create Earth’s magnetic
field
The temperature at the inner core is
also very high but the pressure is
greater than the pressure on the outer
core
Therefore, the inner core is believed
to be solid
Objectives:
1. Distinguish between
rocks and minerals
2. Explain several properties
used to identify minerals
Definition: a rock is a solid combination
of minerals or mineral materials
Definition: a mineral is a naturally
occurring inorganic solid with a crystal
structure and a characteristic chemical
composition
Definition: inorganic solids are products
of nonliving things
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks
Some properties of minerals include:
crystal structure, color, streak, luster,
density, hardness and fracture
Crystal structure means that the atoms
have a specific geometric shape
Some minerals have a characteristic
color
Streak is the color of the mineral’s
powder
• Luster is a measure of how shiny the mineral
is & it is the way its surface reflects the light
• Density depends on the unique chemical
composition of the mineral & it is a unique
physical property of all substances
• Density is mass divided by volume
• Hardness is the resistance of the mineral to
scratching
• Hardness of minerals is measured by Mohs
Hardness Scale which runs from 1 (softest) to
10 (hardest)
• Talc or chalk is 1 and diamonds are 10
Fracture is how the mineral breaks
Some minerals split along a
geometric line or plane
Some minerals have other
properties such as solubility
(ability to dissolve) in certain
substances, florescence, electrical
charge when heated, cooled or
subjected to pressure or ability to
refract light
Objectives:
1. Classify rocks as igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic
2. Explain how different types of rocks
form
3. Describe the processes by which
rocks continually change from one type
to another in the rock cycle
Rocks are classified into 3 major groups:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
The classification is based on how they form
Definition: magma is a mixture of molten rock
and gases which forms underground
Definition: lava is magma that flows out of
volcanoes
Igneous rock forms from magma
Quartz is an igneous mineral but can be
found in the other rock types as a mineral
• There are 2 types of igneous rock: intrusive
and extrusive
• Intrusive igneous rock forms underground
slowly from hardened magma
• Extrusive igneous rock forms faster at Earth’s
surface
• Examples of intrusive igneous rock include
gabbro and granite
• An extrusive rock is basalt
• Some other kinds of igneous rocks include:
Obsidian (extrusive volcanic glass), Pumice, &
Rhyolite
• Definition: sediment consists of small pieces of
material that comes from rocks or living
organisms
• The basic mechanism of formation has to do with
pressure and the presence of water, weathering
and erosion
• as more and more sediments build up over time,
the deeper layers become compressed &
squeezed with dissolved minerals (usually in
water) seeping into the spaces creating the
cement that holds the layers of sediment together
• Geologists classify sedimentary rocks into 3
groups according to how they form: clastic rocks,
chemical rocks and organic rocks
Definition: clastic rocks are sedimentary rocks
formed from broken fragments of other rocks
Clastic rocks are held together by cement
An example is conglomerate
Definition: chemical rock is sedimentary rock that
form when minerals precipitate out of solution
An example is calcium carbonate, limestone or shale
Definition: organic rocks form from once living
organisms such as dead coral, clams, and mussels
An example is the White Cliffs of Dover (England)
composed of chalk from dead sea organisms
Sandstone is also a sedimentary rock
The picture that follows shows some common
sedimentary rocks
Definition: metamorphic rock is rock that
has been changed by temperature,
pressure or reactions with hot water
Most metamorphic rocks form under high
temperatures and pressure deep
underground
Slate, schist and gneiss are metamorphic
rocks that can be formed from the
sedimentary rock shale after temperature
& pressure
Marble and Quartzite are also
metamorphic rocks
• Definition: the rock cycle is a series of
processes in which rocks continuously
change from one type to another
• In the rock cycle, forces within Earth and at
the surface cause rocks to change form
• Igneous rock forces include: magma, melting
and cooling
• Sedimentary rock forces include: weathering,
erosion, compacting and cementation
• Metamorphic rock forces include: heat and
pressure
Objectives:
1. Explain the hypothesis of
continental drift
2. Relate how the theory of plate
tectonics explains sea-floor
spreading, subduction and the
formation of mountains
3. Explain the mechanisms of plate
movement
Definition: plate tectonics is the theory that
pieces of Earth’s lithosphere, called plates,
move about slowly on top of the asthenosphere
The theory of plate tectonics explains the
formation and movement of Earth’s plates
In 1912, a German scientist named Alfred
Wegner proposed the theory of continental
drift
Wegner hypothesized that the continents were
once joined in a single supercontinent (called
Pangaea) which then broke into pieces and
moved apart
Wegner’s hypothesis and new evidence led
geologists to propose the theory of plate
tectonics
In the mid 1900s scientists mapped a chain
of ocean mountain called the mid-ocean
ridge
While mapping the ridge they also found a
deep valley running the length of the crest
A geologist named Harry Hess proposed the
theory of sea-floor spreading to explain this
• Definition: sea-floor spreading is the process by
which new oceanic crust is created at the mid-
ocean ridges as older crust moves away
• The ridge is a huge crack where magma is
pulled upward
• Definition: subduction is the process by which
oceanic plates sink into the magma of the
mantle creating a trench
• As sea-floor spreading occurs, old oceanic
plates sink into subduction zones
• Definition: a trench is a depression in the ocean
floor caused by the plate sinking into the
subduction zone
Sea-floor spreading creates new oceanic crust
at mid-ocean ridges
Subduction destroys old oceanic crust at
subduction zones
Patterns of parallel magnetic stripes in the
rocks were identical and found on both sides
of the ridge
The stripes exist because Earth has reversed its
magnetic field several times in the past
The stripes indicate that new ocean floor was
added to both sides of the ridge about roughly
the same time
Sea-floor spreading provided evidence that
pieces of Earth’s crust move
The plate tectonics theory says that Earth’s
plates are constantly moving independent of
each other
Each plate moves at a different rate and
direction
Plate motions are the visible part of the process
of mantle convection
The picture that follows begins today and goes
back millions of years to visualize Pangaea
Definition: convection is the transfer of
heat energy when particles of a fluid
move from one place to another
Convection currents usually exist in
circular patterns
The heat that drives plate tectonic
convection in the mantle comes from
the decay of radioactive isotopes in the
mantle & crust, and also from the
gradual cooling of the interior of Earth
Earth was hot when it was formed
There are about a dozen major tectonic
plates
Most plates contain both continental &
oceanic crust
There are 3 types of plate boundaries:
divergent boundaries, convergent
boundaries & transform boundaries
The plates move slowly, from 0.1 cm –
10 cm per year
• Divergent plates move away from each other
• The mid-ocean ridge is a major divergent
boundary
• When plates move apart, magma from the mantle
rises, fills the gap, then forms new rock
• Convergent plates move toward each other
• Most convergent boundaries occur at subduction
zones where less dense oceanic crust dives
underneath continental crust, slipping into the
magma, melting and destroying rock
• At transform boundaries, the plates slide past
each other in opposite directions
• Rock is neither created nor destroyed
• The San Andreas fault of which we are a part, is a
transform boundary
• Mountains form along plate boundaries
• At convergent boundaries where crust has the
same density, neither plate is subducted during
the collision
• The crust buckles, folds, thickens and pushes up
tall mountains
• Occasionally this happens between oceanic &
continental crust, but usually between
continental crust
• At divergent boundaries, the mid-ocean ridge
forms a long chain of mountains on the sea floor
• No mountains are formed at transform
boundaries
Objectives:
1. Describe the causes and effects of
stress in Earth’s crust
2. Explain why earthquakes occur
and how their energy is
3. Explain how earthquakes are
measured and how earthquake data
is used to learn about Earth’s interior
Definition: an earthquake is movement of
Earth’s lithosphere that occurs when rock
in the lithosphere suddenly shift,
releasing stored energy
Definition: seismic waves are energy
released during the earthquake and
carried by vibrations
Definition: a tsunami is a large sea wave
generated by an underwater earthquake,
volcano or landslide
Definition: stress is a force that squeezes rocks
together, stretches or pulls them apart, or pushes
them in different directions
As tectonic plates move, they cause stress in the crust
which produces faults and folds
Definition: a fault is break in the mass of rock along
which movement occurs
Many faults along plate boundaries
Definition: a fold is a bend in the layers of rock
Folds form where rocks are squeezed together but do
not break
They can be seen in rock layers that make up some
mountain ranges
The pictures that follow show folded sedimentary
rock layers & other folded rock
• Earthquakes occur because stress forces have
exceeded the strength of the rock
• As the rocks break and move, potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy in the form of
seismic waves
• Earthquakes produce 3 types of waves: P waves, S
waves and surface waves
• P waves are primary waves
• They are longitudinal waves similar to sound
waves
• P waves compress and expand the ground like an
accordion
S waves are secondary waves
They are transverse waves like
light or electromagnetic radiation
Surface waves develop when
seismic waves reach Earth’s
surface
Surface waves move more slowly
than P and S waves, but produce
larger ground movements and
greater damage
Definition: focus is the place
underground where the rock broke &
the earthquake started
Definition: epicenter is the place above
ground directly above the focus
Scientists use their equipment to
gather information on where the
epicenter and focus are & to estimate
the size of the earthquake
Geologists record seismic waves
using seismographs to measure &
pinpoint the epicenter
Definition: a seismograph is a
device that detects and records
seismic waves
The Richter scale for
measurement is no longer used by
geologists
The moment magnitude scale gives a measure
of the amount of energy released
It is the most useful of the scales currently
used
The modified Mercalli Scale ranges from 1 to
12 and is based on observations of the
intensity of ground shaking and damage in
the areas affected by an earthquake
An earthquake of 7 knocks over chimneys,
while 12 is total destruction of a city and
nearby towns
Most earthquakes are concentrated along plate
boundaries, where many faults are found
• Objectives:
• 1. Describe the internal structure of a
volcano and how volcanoes form
• 2. Relate the type of volcanic eruption to
the characteristics of magma
• 3. Describe the different types of
volcanoes and where they are located
• 4. Describe several types of igneous
features and how they are formed
Under certain conditions, small amounts of
mantle rock can melt, forming liquid magma
The magma rises upward through the crust,
erupting at the surface as a volcano
Before eruption, magma collects in a pocket
called a magma chamber
The magma rises to the surface in a vertical
channel called a pipe
The magma escapes on the surface at the vent
A large central vent in most volcanoes is a
bowl-shaped pit called a crater
After eruption, the magma chamber and main
vent may be empty of magma, creating a hollow
shell
If the shell collapses inward, it creates a
depression called a caldera, located at the top of
the volcano
Volcanoes erupt explosively or quietly
depending on the characteristics of the magma
Recall that viscosity is resistance to flow
Magma with high viscosity erupts explosively
The picture is of a caldera of a volcano in
Hawaii
Most volcanoes occur along plate
boundaries
A few are located at hot spots in the crust
The volcanoes at plate boundaries are
associated with subduction zones
Definition: a hot spot is a region where
hot rock extends from deep within the
mantle to the surface
Hawaii is built on active hot spot
volcanoes
There are 3 major types of volcanoes
They are: shield volcanoes, cinder cones,
and composite volcanoes
A quiet eruption of low viscosity produces
a wide, flat shield volcano
An ash and cinder eruption produces a
steep-sided cinder cone volcano
Lava and ash explosive eruptions form
composite volcanoes
Mount Saint Helens is a composite
volcano
Magma forms igneous features such as
batholiths, sills, dikes and volcanic necks
Definition: a batholith is the largest type
of intrusive igneous rock mass
We live in the Sierra Nevada Batholith &
it is the the core of our mountain range
which was born out of volcanoes
The picture is of the Sierra Nevada
Batholith
Definition: a sill is magma that has squeezed
into a crack that is parallel to the existing rock
and hardened
Definition: a dike is hardened magma that has
formed in a crack that cuts across rock layers
Definition: volcanic rock is magma that has
hardened in a volcano’s pipe
The largest lava flows come from clusters of
long thin cracks in Earth’s crust (not from
volcanoes)
Definition: a plateau is lava that has spread
and created a high level area