Mobile Computing Wireless Communication

(MCWC)
GTU # 3170710

Unit-2:
Wireless
Communication
Technology
PART-1:Cellular Wireless Networks
Prof.Swati R Sharma
Computer Engineering Department
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
[email protected]
(O) 9727747317
 Looping
Topics to be covered-Cellular Wireless Networks
• Principles of Cellular Networks
• First Generation Analog
• Second-Generation TDMA
• Second-Generation CDMA
• Third-Generation Systems

Cellular Wireless Networks

Principles of Cellular Networks
Principles of Cellular Networks
 Cellular technology is the foundation of Mobile Wireless
Communications.
 It support the users in location that are not easily served by
wired networks.
 Cellular network is an underlying technology for mobile
phones, personal communication systems, wireless
networking etc.
 The technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to
replace high power transmitter/receiver systems with low
power transmitter/receiver.
 Cellular networks use low power, shorter range and more
transmitters for data transmission.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 4

Cellular Network Organization
Cellular Network Organization
 Multiple low power transmitters
 100w or less
 Area divided into cells
 Each with own antenna
 Each with own range of frequencies
 Served by Base Station (BS)
 Transmitter, receiver, control unit
 Adjacent cells on different frequencies to avoid crosstalk

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 6

Shape of Cells
 Square
 Width d cell has four neighbours at distance d and four at distance d
 However, this geometry is not ideal
 Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
 Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna

 Hexagon
 Provides equidistant antennas
 Radius defined as radius of circum-circle
 Distance from center to vertex equals length of side
 Distance between centers of cells radius R is R
 Not always precise hexagons
 Topographical limitations
 Local signal propagation conditions
 Location of antennas

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 7

Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse
 Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same
radio frequencies within a given area, that are
separated by considerable distance, with minimal
interference, to establish communication.
 Benefits of Frequency Reuse:
 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency
 Limits escaping power to adjacent cells
 Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 9

Frequency Reuse
Example:
  
 N cells all using same number of frequencies
 K total number of frequencies used in systems 2
7 3
 Each cell has K/N frequencies 1
6 4
 Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) 5

Given: N=7
K=395 kHz
Find: Frequency of each cell
Solution: Frequency of each cell==

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 10

Characterizing Frequency Reuse
D: Minimum distance between centers of
cells that use the same band of frequencies
(called co-channels)
1
R: Radius of a cell
5
d: Distance between centers of adjacent
D
cells (d = R) 3 2 2

N: Number of cells in repetitious pattern 7 3

R 1

6 d 4

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 11

Cluster Size
Cluster Size
 How to find cluster size of cellular network?

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 13

Cluster Size
 How to find cluster size of cellular network?
 Formula: N=I2+J2+(I X J)
1
N: No. of cell with unique/non repeated frequency
5

2 2

7 3

6 4

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 14

Cluster Size
 How to find cluster size of cellular network?
 Formula: N=I2+J2+(I X J)
j=2 1
N: No. of cell with unique/non repeated frequency j=1
5
I: No. of steps required to move in one direction in order to j=1
reach cell with same frequency 2 i=2 2
i=1
J: No. of steps required to move in other direction(i.e. 60° 7 3
anticlockwise) in order to reach cell with same frequency.
 Now, if we want to find distance to reach from cell1 to 1
i=1
another cell1 then, 6 4
Given: I=1,J=2 5
Solution: N=12+22+(1X2)
=1+4+2
=7

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 15

Exercise: Cluster Size
 Find cluster size of cellular
network.
 Formula: N=I2+J2+(I X J)
 Now, if we want to find distance
to reach from cell1 to another
cell1 then,
Given: I=2,J=3
Solution: N=22+32+(2X3)
=4+9+6
N=19

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 16

Characterizing Frequency Reuse
Characterizing Frequency Reuse
  Possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, …

For Hexagonal geometry 3N (d  3R)

Therefore, N
1
5
D 2
D: Minimum distance between centers of cells that use the 2
same band of frequencies (called co-channels) 7 3
R: Radius of a cell
R 1
d: Distance between centers of adjacent cells (d = R) 3
N: Number of cells in repetitious pattern 6 d 4
5

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 18

Increasing Capacity
Increasing Capacity
 As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a cell
eventually becomes insufficient to support the required number of users.
 At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage
area.
 Techniques such as
 Cell splitting
 Cell Sectoring
 Coverage zone approaches
are used in practice to expand the capacity of cellular systems. 

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 20

Cell Splitting
Cell Splitting
 Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells
 Each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna
height and transmitter power.
 Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it
increases the number of times that channels are reused.
 By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original
cells and by installing these smaller cells (called microcells)
between the existing cells.
 Capacity increases due to the additional number of channels per unit area.
 The original cell size is about 6.5 to 13km.
 To split the cell in smaller cells, the power level must be reduced
to keep the signal within cell.
 Ideally 1.5Km cells are close to practical minimum size.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 22

Cell Sectoring
Cell Sectoring
 One way to increase to subscriber capacity of
a cellular network is replace the omni-
directional antenna at each base station by 1
three (or six) sector antennas of 120 (or 60)
5
degrees opening. Sector-n
 Each sector can be considered as a new cell, 2 2

with its own (set of) frequency channel(s). 7 3

6 4

Sector-1
Sector-2

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 24

Cell Sectoring
 One way to increase to subscriber capacity of
a cellular network is replace the omni-directional
antenna at each base station by three (or six) sector 60º
antennas of 120 (or 60) degrees opening.
 Each sector can be considered as a new cell, with its
own (set of) frequency channel(s).
 Sectorization is less expensive than cell-splitting, as it
does not require the acquisition of new base station
sites
120º

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 25

Cell Splitting vs Cell Sectoring
Cell Splitting Cell Sectoring

Cell are divided into smaller cells each with own base station Cell are sectored into angle of either 60 or 120 degree.
and reduced frequency.
May lead to co-channel interference Decrease in co-channel interference
Radius of the cell is decreased  Radius of the cell is kept constant
Here large macro-cell are dedicated to high-speed traffic. Decreases the coverage area of a group of channels and
Therefore number of handoffs will be reduced. increases the number of handoffs.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 26

Operation of Cellular Systems
Operation of Cellular Systems
 Base Station: A base station is a fixed point of
communication for cellular phones on a carrier
network.
 The most important part of the cellular network is the
base station. 
 It contain 3 elements
1. Antenna- handles ranging of signals
2. Controller- handles call process between mobile and
network.
3. Transceivers- transmit and receives signals

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 28

Operation of Cellular Systems
• Each Base station is connected to a MTSO (Mobile Telecommunication Switching Office).
• MTSO is also connected with PTSN (Public Telecommunications Switching Network).

MTSO
• Connects calls between mobile
units and from mobile to fixed
telecommunications network
• Assigns voice channel
• Performs handoffs
• Monitors calls (billing)

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 29

Cellular System
 The Cellular System is fully automated except placing or answering the call.
 Two types of channel available between
Contains information for setting up and
maintaining calls, establish relationship
between mobile unit and nearest Base Station

Control Channel

Traffic Channel

Base Station Carry voice or data connections between Mobile Unit

users.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 30

Typical Call in Single MTSO Area
 Mobile unit initialization
 When mobile is turns ON,
 Scan and select strongest set up control channel
 Automatically selected BS antenna of cell
 Usually but not always nearest (propagation anomalies)
 Handshake between MTSO and Mobile unit via base station(BS) to
identify user and register location
 Scan repeated to allow for movement
 Change of cell
 Mobile unit monitors for pages

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 31

Typical Call in Single MTSO Area
 Mobile originated call
 Check set up channel is free
 Monitor forward channel (from BS) and wait for idle
 Send number on pre-selected channel
 The BS will send request to MTSO
 Paging
 MTSO attempts to connect to mobile unit
 Paging message sent to BSs depending on called mobile number
 Paging signal transmitted on set up channel

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 32

Typical Call in Single MTSO Area
 Call accepted
 Mobile unit recognizes number on set up channel
 Responds to BS which sends response to MTSO
 MTSO sets up circuit between calling and called BSs
 MTSO selects available traffic channel within cells and notifies BSs
 BSs notify mobile unit of channel
 Ongoing call
 Voice/data exchanged through respective BSs and MTSO

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 33

Typical Call in Single MTSO Area
 Handoff
 Mobile unit moves out of range of cell into range of
another cell
 Traffic channel changes to one assigned to new BS
 Without interruption of service to user

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 34

Call in Single MTSO Area: Other Functions
 Call blocking
 During mobile-initiated call stage, if all traffic channels busy, mobile tries again
 After number of fails, busy tone is returned
 Call termination
 User hangs up
 MTSO informed
 Traffic channels at two BSs released
 Call drop
 BS cannot maintain required signal strength
 Traffic channel dropped and MTSO informed
 Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber
 MTSO connects to PSTN
 MTSO can connect mobile user and fixed subscriber via PSTN
 MTSO can connect to remote MTSO via PSTN or via dedicated lines
 Can connect mobile user in its area and remote mobile user

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 35

Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Signal strength
 Strength of signal between BS and mobile unit strong
enough to maintain signal quality at the receiver
 Not strong enough to create too much cochannel
interference
 Noise varies
 Automobile ignition noise greater in city than in suburbs
 Other signal sources vary
 Signal strength varies as function of distance from BS
 Signal strength varies dynamically as mobile unit moves

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 37

Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
 Reflection:
 Propagation wave impinges on an object which is
large as compared to wavelength
 May have phase shift from original
 May cancel out original or increase it
 E.g. surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
 Diffraction
 Radio path between transmitter and receiver
obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges
 Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS
(line of sight) does not exist
 Scattering
 Objects smaller than the wavelength of the
propagation wave
 e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 38

Mobile Radio Propagation Effects
Fading
In wireless communication signal fading occurs due to
1. Time variation of received signal
2. Caused by changes in transmission path(s)
3. Atmospheric conditions (rain)
4. Movement of (mobile unit) antenna
 Multipath effect
 It means signal travels from source may take multiple path to
reach destination.
 The signals receives at then receiver end is sum of all multipath
signals.
 It may leads to phase difference due to comparatively longer and
shorter path of traversal in multipath effect.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 39

Types of Fading
Types of Fading
 Fast fading
 Rapid changes in strength over distances about half wavelength
 Slow fading
 Slower changes due to user passing different height buildings,
gaps in buildings etc.
 Over longer distances than fast fading
 Flat fading
 Nonselective
 Affects all frequencies in same proportion
 Selective fading
 Different frequency components affected differently

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 41

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 42
First Generation Analog
First Generation Analog
 Refers to 1G (first generation of wireless cellular technology mobile
telecommunications)
 Uses analog radio signals
 Provides basic voice service
 Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) in Tokyo started the first
commercial analog cellular system in December 1979
 Transmission speed was very low (1-2Kbps).
 Each phone contained
 32-bit serial number
 10 digit phone number in its PROM
 The pivotal idea behind 1G Cellular network was that the geographical
area is divided among cells
 Each cell served by base station

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 44

First Generation Analog: Call Sequence
1. Subscriber initiates call by keying in number and presses send
2. MTSO validates telephone number and checks user authorized to place
call
 Some service providers require a PIN to counter theft
3. MTSO issues message to user's phone indicating traffic channels to use
4. MTSO sends ringing signal to called party
 All operations, 2 through 4, occur within 10s of initiating call
5. When called party answers, MTSO establishes circuit and initiates billing
information
6. When one party hangs up MTSO releases circuit, frees radio channels, and
completes billing information

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 45

First Generation Analog
 Features
 Channel Bandwidth: 30kHz
 Data transmission rate: 1-2kbps
 No. of control channel: 42
 No. of voice channel: 790
 Cell radius: 2-20km
 Modulation-voice channel: FM (Frequency Modulation)
 Modulation-control channel: FSK
 Circuit switching
 Limitations
 Limited capacity:1-2kbps
 Lack of privacy- No encryption
 Poor sound quality
 No room for spectrum growth
 Unreliable hand-off
 No internet
Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 46
Second Generation -2G
TDMA & CDMA
Second-Generation

Second Generation Second Generation

TDMA CDMA
(Time Division Multiple Access) (Code Division Multiple Access)

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 48

FDMA, TDMA, CDMA

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 49

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 50
Second-Generation TDMA
 It is a digital cellular telephone communication technology.
 It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference.

 TDMA technology divides a signal into various timeslots, and increases

the data carrying capacity.
 TDMA is used in digital mobile radio systems.
 The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 51

Second-Generation TDMA: Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages
 Flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each time
interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
 Can withstand with variable bit rate traffic.
 Number of slots allocated to a user can be changed frame by frame (for example, two
slots in the frame 1, three slots in the frame 2, one slot in the frame 3).
 No guard band required for the wideband system.
 No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.
 Disadvantages
 High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.
 Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock
instability).
 Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
 Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 52

Second-Generation CDMA
 In CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code.
 Many codes occupy the same channel, but only those users associated with a
particular code can communicate.
 Every channel uses the full available spectrum.
 Each conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence and
then transmitted using a wide frequency range.
 Provides better voice quality and data communication.
 Digital traffic channels
 Support digital data
 Voice traffic digitized
 User traffic (data or digitized voice) converted to analog signal for transmission
 Encryption
 Simple to encrypt digital traffic
 Error detection and correction
 More capacity than TDMA

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 53

Second-Generation CDMA: Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages
 It does not require any synchronization
 It has a very high spectral capacity, thus many numbers of users can share in
the same bandwidth
 CDMA channel is not easily decode-able
 Dropouts occur only when the phone is at least twice as far from the base
station. 
 High voice quality as well as signal quality
 Flexible allocation of resources
 Operate at a very low power level
 Disadvantages
 Does not provide international roaming capabilities like GSM.
 Information related to CDMA is stored in phone memory rather than SIM
memory like GSM, thus, tedious to upgrade Mobile unit.
 Limited handset, because at present the major mobile companies use GSM
technology.
 Performance degrades with an increase in the number of users
Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 54
Second-Generation
 Features
 Emits comparatively less radio power
 Maximum power drawn by mobile unit is 20Watts
 Encryption facility
 Error detection and correction
 Internet was provided

 Limitations
 Difficult to handle complex data such as Video
 Higher signal strength is required to make device work

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 55

Third Generation -3G
Third-Generation Systems
 Introduced in year 2000
 Used WCDMA (Wideband CDMA) technology
 Support circuit and packet switching
 Objective is to provide fairly high-speed wireless communications to support
 Multimedia data
 Video
 Voice
 Web browsing
 TV streaming
 Video conferencing
 Navigation
 Email
 More coverage with lowest investment

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 57

Third-Generation Systems
 Features
 Technology used: WCDMA/CDMA
 Bandwidth: 5-10 Mbps
 Frequency Band:15-25 GHz
 User circuit and packet switching
 Higher Security
 Limitations
 Cost of mobile unit is higher
 Cost of 3G license services is higher.

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 58

GSM vs CDMA
GSM vs CDMA
GSM CDMA
Global System for Mobile communication Code Division Multiple Access
Technology: FDMA & TDMA CDMA
Data rate: 42Mbps in HSPA (3G) Data rate: 3.6Mbps in CDMA
GSM supports transmitting data and voice together CDMA doesn’t support it
Here customer information is stored in SIM card. Here customer information is stored in Handset.
Global market share is 75% Global market share is 25%
SIM specific. User can use/upgrade to multiple handset Handset specific
Security is comparatively lower than CDMA Provides more security as encryption is inherit feature
Support International roaming CDMA doesn’t support this facility

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 60

Comparison of Mobile
Generations
Comparison of Mobile Generations
Parameters 1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Introduced in 1980’s 1990’s 2000’s 2010’s 2020’s
Bandwidth 2kbps 64kbps 2Mbps 200Mbps 1Gbps
Standard- AMPS-analog TDMA,CDMA(2G) 3G,HSPA,HSPA+ 4G,LTE Single Unified
Technology NMT-Nordic Mobile EDGE,GPRS(2.5G) WCDMA-broadband Standard-Unified IP Standard-Unified IP
Telephone GSM-digital cellular UMTS Seamless
Switching Circuit Switching Circuit Switching Packet Switching Packet Switching Packet Switching
Technique & Packet Switching
Multiplexing FDMA TDMA/CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Technique
Core Network PSTN PSTN Packet Network Internet Internet
Features Mobility, voice call Roaming Global Roaming, Internet, MobileIP, Internet
Voice quality High speed data Wi-Max <1 msec latency
SMS,MMS Internet(limited) IoT
Handoff Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal & Horizontal &
Vertical Vertical

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 62

GTU Questions: Unit 2-Part 1

Sr. Question Marks Year

1. Describe Cell Splitting and Cell Sectoring with its limitations in detail. 7 Win’19
2. Justify, Why Hexagon cell shape is used in cellular network? 3 Win’20
3. Define following.1) Fading 2) Modulation 3 Win’18
4. Define Reflection, Refraction and diffraction. 4 Sum’19

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 63

References
Book: Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, William Stallings by Pearson

Prof. Swati R Sharma #3170710 (MCWC)  Unit 2 – Wireless Communication Technology 64

Thank You