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General Medical Biology: Lecture 3: Cell Structure and Function

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Komar University of Science and Technology College of Medicine

General Medical Biology

Lecture 3: Cell structure and Function

Dr. Yasin Ahmadi


3.
Cytoplasm

▪ Everything enclosed by the cell membrane except for the


nucleus is known as the cytoplasm.

▪ It is a colourless gel-like fluid that fills the area between the

cell membrane and the nucleus.

▪ Within the cytoplasm are various structures that


play
specific roles so that together make an alive creature, namely
a cell

Cytoplasm includes

• Cytosol

• Organelles
1. Cytosol

• The cytosol is the aqueous part of the cytoplasm


encompassing all organelles
• Apart from organelles, cytosol comprises various
molecules such as soluble proteins, salt and
water.
• Cytosol also contains fatty acids, amino acids,
carbohydrates, and enzymes.
• Cytosol also contains filaments (protein chains)
that form the cytoskeleton, which gives shape to a
cell and holds the various organelles.
2. Organelles

Mitochondria
• The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double membrane -bound organelle found almost in
all eukaryotic organisms.
• Mitochondria generate most of the cell’s supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) so it is known as the
power house of the cell.
• The cellular content of mitochondria varies widely by organism, tissue, and cell type. For instance, red
blood cells have no mitochondria, whereas liver cells (hepatocytes) have more than 2000.
Intermembrane space

Mitochondria
Structure of Mitochondria

▪ Both membranes composed of phospholipid


bilayers and proteins.
▪ There are four distinct parts to a mitochondrion:
1. The outer mitochondrial membrane
2. The intermembrane space (the space between the
outer and inner membranes)
3. The inner mitochondrial membrane which forms
cristae (by folding of the inner membrane).
4. The matrix: contain enzyme, DNA and ribosome.
Function of Mitochondria
▪ Mitochondria have originally
evolved to produce the energy units
of the cell, ATP, during a process
known as Cellular respiration.
• Cellular respiration comprises 3
steps:
1. Glycolysis (Glucose breakdown to
pyruvate) (in cytosol)
2. Krebs Cycle (TCA) (in
mitochondria)
3. Electron Transport Chain (in
mitochondria)
6
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

▪ Eendoplasmic reticulum is found in


most eukaryotic cells and forms an
interconnected network of flattened,
membrane-enclosed sacs known as cisternae (in
the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and
tubular structures in the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).

lumen
▪ The membranes of the ER are continuous with
the outer nuclear membrane (perinuclear
space). 7

• The endoplasmic reticulum is not found in red


blood cells, or spermatozoa.
• ER plays a major role in the production, processing, and transport of
proteins and lipids.

▪ Different types of cells contain different ratios of the two types of ER


depending on the activities of the cell.

▪ The outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is dotted


with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. 

▪ The RER is especially present in the cells such as hepatocytes which


produce high level of proteins.

▪ The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) lacks ribosomes and functions


in lipid synthesis but not metabolism, the production of steroid
hormones, and detoxification

▪ The SER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells


(sexual glands).
▪ Two types of endoplasmic reticulum
1. Rough ER
• The RER is characterized by the presence of membrane-bound ribosomes that give it a
distinctive appearance under the microscope.
• The ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle's structure as they are constantly
being bound and released from the membrane
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum plays a number
of roles within the cell, largely associated with
protein synthesis.
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially
prominent in cells that are specialized to
produce secreted proteins. Example: Pancreatic
cells: They produce digestive enzymes, which are
transported to the intestine
2. Smooth ER
▪ Its main functions are;
• the synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid hormones,
• the detoxification of harmful metabolites
• the storage and metabolism of calcium ions within the muscle cell.
• it is involved in carbohydrate metabolism
✔ Cells which secrete these products, such as those in the testes, ovaries, and sebaceous
glands have an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi Apparatus/Complex

• The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi

complex, Golgi body, is an organelle found in

most eukaryotic cells.

• Composed of a series of flattened sacs, located

near the nucleus in many cells.


Function of Golgi Apparatus

▪ The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying (phosphorylation and glycosylation),
and packaging proteins (Secretory proteins and glycoproteins, cell membrane proteins,
lysosomal proteins) and lipids (glycolipids ) into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations.

▪ It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum and near the nucleus. 


▪ The Golgi apparatus from Cis region receives vesicles (proteins and lipids) from the ER.
▪ As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications.
▪ The modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of
the Golgi (trans Face).
▪ Secretory vesicles, fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell.
Lumen
Lysosomes

▪ It is a membrane-bounded organelle, They are spherical vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that can


break down many kinds of biomolecules.
▪ lysosomes are known to contain more than 60 different enzymes, and have more than 50 membrane
proteins.
▪ Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and exported to the Golgi
apparatus and then they are transferred to lysosomes in small vesicles.
▪ Enzymes destined for a lysosome are specifically tagged with the molecule mannose 6-phosphate.
▪ Lysosomal enzymes, enabling the cell to break down various biomolecules including
 peptides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.
▪ Digestive system of the cells
▪ These enzymes require an acidic environment for optimal activity.
▪ The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest of the cell, from the degradative
enzymes within the lysosome
▪ Lysosomes functions:

1. Heterophagy
• Heterophagy is the lysosomal
digestion of extracellular
materials which are engulfed
(take into the cell) by the
process of endocytosis.
• There are types of heterophagy
including: phagocytosis
(/faɡə(ʊ)sʌɪˈtəʊsɪs/) and
pinocytosis.
• Phagocytosis: is a cellular process for ingesting and eliminating particles
larger than 0.5 μm in diameter, including microorganisms, foreign substances,
and apoptotic cells.

• Pinocytosis is the ingestion of extracellular fluids, i.e. the fluid surrounding the


cell, together with its contents of small dissolved molecules (solutes)
2) Autolysis is the self-digestion (lysis) process by self-produced enzymes occurs
in necrotic tissue .
3) Autophagy (/ɔːˈtɒfədʒi/): occurs when the cell digests it`s own organelles or other
substances produced by the cell.
• Overall, the difference is that in autophagy the organelle or substance that needs to be
degraded gets surrounded by a double membrane while in autolysis it does not occur.
• Additionally in autophagy just organelles or substances are digested, whole cells
are never digested, in autolysis the whole cell are degraded.
4) Fertilization
During fertilization process, acrosome (giant lysosome) of sperm head ruptures and
releases enzymes on the surface of the egg (ovum).
Peroxisomes

▪ Peroxisomes are membrane bound organelles, existing in the cytoplasm of almost all
eukaryotic cells.

▪ Main functions of peroxisomes are

• Peroxisomes are involved in the formation and decomposition of hydrogen

peroxide (H2O)2.

• A major function of peroxisomes is the breakdown of fatty acid molecules in a

process called beta-oxidation (very-long-chain and polyunsaturated fatty


acids, and branched fatty acids)
.
Cytoskeleton

• A cytoskeleton is present in all cells.

It is a complex network of interlinking filaments and tubules that extend throughout the cytoplasm.
The primary types of fibers comprising the cytoskeleton include:
1. Microtubules
Microtubules are cylindrical tubes, act as a scaffold to determine cell shape and form the spindle
fibers for separating chromosomes during mitosis.
2. Microfilaments are fine, thread-like protein fibers
• They are composed predominantly of a contractile protein called actin, which is the
most abundant cellular protein.

• Microfilaments' association with the protein myosin is responsible for

muscle contraction.
3. Intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and resistance to shear stress.
▪ There are several types of intermediate filaments, each constructed from one or more
proteins.
• Keratins are found in epithelial cells, hair and nails
• Neurofilaments strengthen the long axons of neurons
Thank you for your attention

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