Perforation: Omega 2013
Perforation: Omega 2013
Perforation: Omega 2013
PERFORATION
Omega 2013
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Explosives
Perforating Guns
Well/Reservoir Characteristics
Calculations
References
INTRODUCTION
The skin factor accounts for the additional pressure drop due to
damage or stimulation around the wellbore in an oil and gas formation.
The factors contributing to skin fall into three broad categories: These
are the perforation geometry, perforation environment, and formation
characteristics
The liner collapses to form the high-velocity jet of fluidized metal particles
that are propelled along the charge axis through the well casing & cement &
into the formation.
The detonator is triggered by:
Electrical heating when deployed on wireline systems or,
A firing pin in mechanically or hydraulically operated firing head systems employed
on tubing conveyed perforating (TCP) systems
The jet penetrating mechanism is one of “punching” rather than blasting,
burning, drilling or abrasive wearing.
These jet impact pressures cause steel, cement, rock, & pore fluids to flow
plastically outward.
0 μsec
4 μsec
9.4 μsec
16.6 μsec
Elastic rebound leaves shock-damaged rock, pulverized formation grains &
debris in the newly created perforation tunnels.
Fines and debris restrict injectivity & increase pump pressure, which:
Decreases injection volumes
Impairs placement or distribution of gravel & proppants for sand control or hydraulic
fracture treatments.
The extent of perforation damage is a function of:
Lithology
Rock strength
Porosity
Pore fluid compressibility
Clay content
Formation grain size
Shaped-charge designs
Explain how the following factors affect the extent of perforation damage
EXPLOSIVES
Explosives used in perforation are called Secondary high explosives.
Reaction rate = 22,966 – 30,000 ft/s.
Volume of gas produced = 750 – 1,000 times original volume of explosive.
When a detonator initiates the breaking of the molecules' atomic bonds, the
atoms of nitrogen lock together with much stronger bonds, releasing
tremendous amounts of energy.
Typical explosives are:
RDX (Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine)
HMX (Cyclotrimethylene tetranitramine)
HNS (Hexanitrostilbene)
PYX Bis(Picrylamino)-3,5-dinitropyridine
PS (Picryl sulfone)
Composition B (60% RDX, 40% trinitrotoluene)
Detonation Detonation
Chemical Density
Explosive Velocity Pressure
Formula (g/cc)
(ft/sec) (psi)
HMX Cyclotrimethylene
tetranitramine C4H8N8O8 1.90 30,000 5,700,000
HNS Hexanitrostilbene
C14H6N6O12 1.74 24,300 3,500,000
PYX Bis(picrylamino)-3,5-
dinitropyridine C17H7N11O16 1.77 24,900 3,700,000
RDX is the most commonly used explosives for shaped charges (up to 300 oF).
In deep wells when extreme temperature is required & where the guns are
exposed to well temperatures for longer periods of time, the HMX, PS, HNS or
PYX is used.
It is important to respect the explosives used in perforating operations.
They are hazardous.
Accidents can occur if they are not handled carefully or if proper procedures
are not followed.
Most of the commonly used perforating gun punch holes from 0.23” to 0.72” in
diameter, penetration length of 6” to 48”, shot density of 4 to 12 shots per
foot
Assignment
Write a short note on the different phasing angles of 0o,60o, 90o & 120o
Providing the stand-off is less than 50mm, 180o or less,
120o, 90o, 60o is preferable.
If the smallest charges are being used then the stand-
off should not be more than 25mm.
If fracturing is to be carried out then 90o and lower will
help initiate fractures.
Effect of
centralization
Penetration
kh Pe Pwf
q
re
141.2 B ln s p
rw
Karakas and Tariq (1988) have presented a semi-analytical solution for the
calculation of the perforation skin effect, which they divide into components:
The plane-flow effect, sH
The vertical converging effect, sV
The wellbore effect, swb
s p sH sV swb
The Plane-flow Effect
rw
sH ln
rw
l perf
for 0
rw 4
a r l for 0
o w perf
rw = wellbore radius (ft).
r’w(θ) = effective wellbore radius (ft). It is a function of the phasing angle θ.
lperf = length of perforation (ft)
bca1
21
a a1 log rD a2 b b1rD b2
rperf kV 1 hperf kH
rD 1 hperf hD
2hperf kH shot density l perf kV
a1, a2, b1 & b2 are obtained from the table above.
kH = horizontal permeability
kV = vertical permeability
rperf = radius of perforation (ft)
hD = perforation spacing, dimensionless
hperf = perforation spacing, ft
rd =perforation radius, dimensionless
rw
rwD
l perf rw
re/(rw +Lp) sx
18.0 0.000
10.0 -0.001
2.0 -0.002
1.5 -0.024
1.2 -0.085
For perforations extending beyond the damaged zone, well radius and
perforation length need to be modified, this values can be substituted
into the skin equation for drilling and perforation damage zone effect
to account for cases when extend beyond the damage zone