MySQL Index

Indexing and Hashing
Indexing and Hashing

 Basic Concepts
 Ordered Indices
 B+-Tree Index Files
 B-Tree Index Files
 Static Hashing
 Dynamic Hashing
 Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing
 Index Definition in SQL
 Multiple-Key Access
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Basic Concepts
 Indexing mechanisms used to speed up access to
desired data.
 E.g., author catalog in library
 Search Key - attribute to set of attributes used to
look up records in a file.
 An index file consists of records (called index
entries) of the form
search-key pointer
 Index files are typically much smaller than the

original file
 Two basic kinds of indices:
 Ordered indices: search keys are stored in sorted order
 Hash indices: search keys are distributed uniformly across “buckets”
using a “hash function”.
3
Index Evaluation Metrics
 Access types supported efficiently.
E.g.,
 records with a specified value in the attribute
 or records with an attribute value falling in a specified
range of values (e.g. 10000 < salary < 40000)
 Access time
 Insertion time
 Deletion time
 Space overhead

4
Ordered Indices
 In an ordered index, index entries are stored sorted
on the search key value. E.g., author catalog in
library
 Primary index: in a sequentially ordered file, the index
whose search key specifies the sequential order of
the file
 Also called clustering index
 The search key of a primary index is usually but not necessarily the primary
key
 Secondary index: an index whose search key specifies
an order different from the sequential order of the
file. Also called non-clustering index
 Index-sequential file: ordered sequential file with a
primary index

5
Dense Index Files
 Dense index — Index record appears for
every search-key value in the file.

6
Sparse Index Files
 Sparse Index: contains index records for only some search-
key values.
 Applicable when records are sequentially ordered on search-key
 To locate a record with search-key value K we:
 Find index record with largest search-key value < K
 Search file sequentially starting at the record to which the index record points

7
Sparse Index Files (Cont.)
 Compared to dense indices:
 Less space and less maintenance overhead for
insertions and deletions.
 Generally slower than dense index for locating
records.
 Good tradeoff: sparse index with an
index entry for every block in file,
corresponding to least search-key
value in the block.

8
Multilevel Index
 If primary index does not fit in memory, access
becomes expensive
 Solution: treat primary index kept on disk as a
sequential file and construct a sparse index on it
 outer index – a sparse index of primary index
 inner index – the primary index file
 If even outer index is too large to fit in main
memory, yet another level of index can be
created, and so on
 Indices at all levels must be updated on insertion
or deletion from the file

9
Multilevel Index (Cont.)

10
Index Update: Record Deletion
 If deleted record was the only record in the file
with its particular search-key value, the search-key
is deleted from the index also.
 Single-level index deletion:
 Dense indices – deletion of search-key: similar to file record deletion.
 Sparse indices –
 if deleted key value exists in the index, the value is replaced by the next
search-key value in the file (in search-key order).
 If the next search-key value already has an index entry, the entry is
deleted instead of being replaced.

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Index Update: Record Insertion
 Single-level index insertion:
 Perform a lookup using the key value from inserted record
 Dense indices – if the search-key value does not appear in
the index, insert it.
 Sparse indices – if index stores an entry for each block of
the file, no change needs to be made to the index unless a
new block is created.
 If a new block is created, the first search-key value
appearing in the new block is inserted into the index.
 Multilevel insertion (as well as deletion)
algorithms are simple extensions of the
single-level algorithms
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Secondary Indices Example
Secondary index on balance field of account

 Index record points to a bucket that contains
pointers to all the actual records with that particular
search-key value
 Secondary indices have to be dense
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Primary and Secondary Indices
 Indices offer substantial benefits when searching
for records.
 BUT: Updating indices imposes overhead on
database modification --when a file is modified,
every index on the file must be updated,
 Sequential scan using primary index is efficient,
but a sequential scan using a secondary index is
expensive
 Each record access may fetch a new block from disk
 Block fetch requires about 5 to 10 micro seconds, versus about 100
nanoseconds for memory access

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B+-Tree Index Files
B+-tree indices are an alternative to indexed-sequential files.
 Disadvantage of indexed-sequential files
 performance degrades as file grows, since many overflow blocks get
created.
 Periodic reorganization of entire file is required.
 Advantage of B+-tree index files:
 automatically reorganizes itself with small, local, changes, in the
face of insertions and deletions.
 Reorganization of entire file is not required to maintain performance.
 (Minor) disadvantage of B+-trees:
 extra insertion and deletion overhead, space overhead .
 Advantages of B+-trees outweigh disadvantages
 B+-trees are used extensively

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B+-Tree Index Files (Cont.)
A B+-tree is a rooted tree satisfying the following properties:
 All paths from root to leaf are of the same
length
 Each node that is not a root or a leaf has
between n/2 and n children.
 A leaf node has between (n–1)/2 and n–1
values
 Special cases:
 If the root is not a leaf, it has at least 2 children.
 If the root is a leaf (that is, there are no other nodes in the tree),
it can have between 0 and (n–1) values.

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B+-Tree Node Structure
 Typical node
 Ki are the search-key values

 Pi are pointers to children (for non-leaf nodes) or
pointers to records or buckets of records (for leaf
nodes).
 The search-keys in a node are ordered
K1 < K2 < K3 < . . . < Kn–1
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Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees
Properties of a leaf node:
 For i = 1, 2, . . ., n–1, pointer Pi either points

to a file record with search-key value Ki, or to
a bucket of pointers to file records, each record
having search-key value Ki. Only need bucket st
ructure if search-key does not form a primary k
ey.
 If Li, Lj are leaf nodes and i < j, Li’s search-key
values are less than Lj’s search-key values
 Pn points to next leaf node in search-key order

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Non-Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees
 Non leaf nodes form a multi-level sparse index on the lea
f nodes. For a non-leaf node with m pointers:
 All the search-keys in the subtree to which P1 points are less
than K1
 For 2  i  n – 1, all the search-keys in the subtree to whic
h Pi points have values greater than or equal to Ki–1 and less
than Ki
 All the search-keys in the subtree to which Pn points have valu
es greater than or equal to Kn–1

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Example of a B+-tree
B+-tree for account file (n = 3)

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Example of B+-tree
B+-tree for account file (n = 5)
 Leaf nodes must have between 2 and 4 values

((n–1)/2 and n –1, with n = 5).
 Non-leaf nodes other than root must have
between 3 and 5 children ((n/2 and n with n
=5).
 Root must have at least 2 children.

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Observations about B+-trees
 Since the inter-node connections are done by pointers, “logi
cally” close blocks need not be “physically” close.
 The non-leaf levels of the B+-tree form a hierarchy of spar
se indices.
 The B+-tree contains a relatively small number of levels
 Level below root has at least 2* n/2 values
 Next level has at least 2* n/2 * n/2 values
 .. etc.
 If there are K search-key values in the file, the tr
ee height is no more than  logn/2(K)
 thus searches can be conducted efficiently.
 Insertions and deletions to the main file can be handle
d efficiently, as the index can be restructured in logar
ithmic time (as we shall see).
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Queries on B+-Trees
 Find all records with a search-key value of k.
1. N=root
2. Repeat
1. Examine N for the smallest search-key value > k.
2. If such a value exists, assume it is Ki. Then set N = Pi
3. Otherwise k  Kn–1. Set N = Pn
Until N is a leaf node
3. If for some i, key Ki = k follow pointer Pi to the desired rec
ord or bucket.
4. Else no record with search-key value k exists.

23
Queries on B+-Trees (Cont.)
 If there are K search-key values in the file, the
height of the tree is no more than logn/2(K).
 A node is generally the same size as a disk block,
typically 4 kilobytes
 and n is typically around 100 (40 bytes per index entry).
 With 1 million search key values and n = 100
 at most log50(1,000,000) = 4 nodes are accessed in a lookup.
 Contrast this with a balanced binary tree with 1
million search key values — around 20 nodes are
accessed in a lookup
 above difference is significant since every node access may need a disk
I/O, costing around 20 milliseconds

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Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion
1. Find the leaf node in which the search-key
value would appear
2. If the search-key value is already present in
the leaf node
1. Add record to the file
3. If the search-key value is not present, then
1. add the record to the main file (and create a bucket if
necessary)
2. If there is room in the leaf node, insert (key-value, pointer)
pair in the leaf node
3. Otherwise, split the node (along with the new (key-value,
pointer) entry) as discussed in the next slide.
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Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion (Cont.)
 Splitting a leaf node:
 take the n (search-key value, pointer) pairs (including the
one being inserted) in sorted order. Place the first n/2 in
the original node, and the rest in a new node.
 let the new node be p, and let k be the least key value in p.
Insert (k,p) in the parent of the node being split.
 If the parent is full, split it and propagate the split further
up.
 Splitting of nodes proceeds upwards till a
node that is not full is found.
 In the worst case the root node may be split increasing the
height of the tree by 1.
Result of splitting node containing Brighton and Downtown on inserting Clearvie
w
Next step: insert entry with (Downtown,pointer-to-new-node)
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Updates on B -Trees: Insertion
(Cont.)
B+-Tree before and after insertion of “Clearview”

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Insertion in B+-Trees (Cont.)
 Splitting a non-leaf node: when inserting
(k,p) into an already full internal node N
 Copy N to an in-memory area M with space for
n+1 pointers and n keys
 Insert (k,p) into M
 Copy P1,K1, …, K n/2-1,P n/2 from M back into
node N
 Copy Pn/2+1,K n/2+1,…,Kn,Pn+1 from M into newly
allocated node N’
 Insert (K n/2,N’) into parent NMianus
 Read pseudocode in book!
Downtown Mianus Perryridge Downtown Redwood

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Updates on B+-Trees: Deletion
 Find the record to be deleted, and remove it from the
main file and from the bucket (if present)
 Remove (search-key value, pointer) from the leaf node
if there is no bucket or if the bucket has become
empty
 If the node has too few entries due to the removal,
and the entries in the node and a sibling fit into a
single node, then merge siblings:
 Insert all the search-key values in the two nodes into a single node (the one
on the left), and delete the other node.
 Delete the pair (Ki–1, Pi), where Pi is the pointer to the deleted node, from
its parent, recursively using the above procedure.

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Updates on B+-Trees:
Deletion
 Otherwise, if the node has too few entries due to
the removal, but the entries in the node and a
sibling do not fit into a single node, then
redistribute pointers:
 Redistribute the pointers between the node and a sibling such that
both have more than the minimum number of entries.
 Update the corresponding search-key value in the parent of the node.
 The node deletions may cascade upwards till a
node which has n/2 or more pointers is found.
 If the root node has only one pointer after
deletion, it is deleted and the sole child becomes
the root.

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Examples of B+-Tree Deletion
Before and after deleting “Downtown”

 Deleting “Downtown” causes merging of under-full leaves
 leaf node can become empty only for n=3!
31
(Cont.)
Before and After deletion of “Perryridge” from result of

previous example

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(Cont.)
 Leaf with “Perryridge” becomes underfull (actually empty, in this special case)
and merged with its sibling.
 As a result “Perryridge” node’s parent became underfull, and was merged with i
ts sibling
 Value separating two nodes (at parent) moves into merged node
 Entry deleted from parent
 Root node then has only one child, and is deleted

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Example of B+-tree Deletion
(Cont.)
Before and after deletion of “Perryridge” from earlier example

 Parent of leaf containing Perryridge became underfull, and
borrowed a pointer from its left sibling

22/2/20 Search-key value in the Cryptography
parent’s parent changes as a result
page:34
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B+-Tree File Organization
 Index file degradation problem is solved by using B+-
Tree indices.
 Data file degradation problem is solved by using B+-T
ree File Organization.
 The leaf nodes in a B+-tree file organization store re
cords, instead of pointers.
 Leaf nodes are still required to be half full
 Since records are larger than pointers, the maximum number o
f records that can be stored in a leaf node is less than the
number of pointers in a nonleaf node.
 Insertion and deletion are handled in the same way a
s insertion and deletion of entries in a B+-tree index.

35
B+-Tree File Organization (Cont.)
Example of B+-tree File Organization

 Good space utilization important since records use
more space than pointers.
 To improve space utilization, involve more sibling
nodes in redistribution during splits and merges
2n / 3
36
Indexing Strings
 Variable length strings as keys
 Variable fanout
 Use space utilization as criterion for splitting, not numbe
r of pointers
 Prefix compression
 Key values at internal nodes can be prefixes of full key
 Keep enough characters to distinguish entries in the subtrees
separated by the key value
 E.g. “Silas” and “Silberschatz” can be separated by “Sil
b”
 Keys in leaf node can be compressed by sharing common prefi
xes

37
B-Tree Index Files
 Similar to B+-tree, but B-tree allows search-key values to appear only
once; eliminates redundant storage of search keys.
 Search keys in nonleaf nodes appear nowhere else in the B-tree; an
additional pointer field for each search key in a nonleaf node must be
included.
 Generalized B-tree leaf node
 Nonleaf node – pointers Bi are the

bucket or file record pointers
38
B-Tree Index File Example
B-tree (above) and B+-tree (below) on same data

39
B-Tree Index Files (Cont.)
 Advantages of B-Tree indices:
 May use less tree nodes than a corresponding B+-Tree.
 Sometimes possible to find search-key value before reaching leaf node.
 Disadvantages of B-Tree indices:
 Only small fraction of all search-key values are found early
 Non-leaf nodes are larger, so fan-out is reduced. Thus, B-Trees typically
have greater depth than corresponding B+-Tree
 Insertion and deletion more complicated than in B+-Trees
 Implementation is harder than B+-Trees.
 Typically, advantages of B-Trees do not out weigh
disadvantages.

40
Multiple-Key Access
 Use multiple indices for certain types of queries.
 Example:
select account_number
from account
where branch_name = “Perryridge” and balance = 1000
 Possible strategies for processing query using indices
on single attributes:
1. Use index on branch_name to find accounts with branch name
Perryridge; test balance = 1000
2. Use index on balance to find accounts with balances of $100
0; test branch_name = “Perryridge”.
3. Use branch_name index to find pointers to all records perta
ining to the Perryridge branch. Similarly use index on bal
ance. Take intersection of both sets of pointers obtained.

41
Indices on Multiple Keys
 Composite search keys are search keys c
ontaining more than one attribute
 E.g. (branch_name, balance)
 Lexicographic ordering: (a1, a2) < (b1, b
2) if either
 a1 < b1, or
 a1=b1 and a2 < b 2

42
Indices on Multiple Attributes
Suppose we have an index on combined search-key (branch_name, balan
ce)
 For where branch_name = “Perryridge” and balance =
1000
the index on (branch_name, balance) can be used to f
etch only records that satisfy both conditions.
 Using separate indices in less efficient — we may fetch many
records (or pointers) that satisfy only one of the conditions.
 Can also efficiently handle where branch_name = “Perr
yridge” and balance < 1000
 But cannot efficiently handle where branch_name < “P
erryridge” and balance = 1000
 May fetch many records that satisfy the first but not the sec
ond condition

43
Non-Unique Search Keys
 Alternatives:
 Buckets on separate block (bad idea)
 List of tuple pointers with each key
 Low space overhead, no extra cost for queries
 Extra code to handle read/update of long lists
 Deletion of a tuple can be expensive if there are
many duplicates on search key (why?)
 Make search key unique by adding a record-identifier
 Extra storage overhead for keys
 Simpler code for insertion/deletion
 Widely used
44
Other Issues in Indexing
 Covering indices
 Add extra attributes to index so (some) queries can avoid fetching the actual
records
 Particularly useful for secondary indices
 Why?
 Can store extra attributes only at leaf
 Record relocation and secondary indices
 If a record moves, all secondary indices that store record pointers have to be
updated
 Node splits in B+-tree file organizations become very expensive
 Solution: use primary-index search key instead of record pointer in
secondary index
 Extra traversal of primary index to locate record
 Higher cost for queries, but node splits are cheap
 Add record-id if primary-index search key is non-unique

45
Hashing
Static Hashing
 A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more
records (a bucket is typically a disk block).
 In a hash file organization we obtain the bucket of a
record directly from its search-key value using a hash
function.
 Hash function h is a function from the set of all search-
key values K to the set of all bucket addresses B.
 Hash function is used to locate records for access,
insertion as well as deletion.
 Records with different search-key values may be mapped
to the same bucket; thus entire bucket has to be
searched sequentially to locate a record.

47
Example of Hash File Organization
Hash file organization of account file, using branch_name as key
(See figure in next slide.)
 There are 10 buckets,

 The binary representation of the ith charac
ter is assumed to be the integer i.
 The hash function returns the sum of the bi
nary representations of the characters mod
ulo 10
 E.g. h(Perryridge) = 5 h(Round Hill) = 3 h
(Brighton) = 3

48
Example of Hash File Organization
Hash file organization of acco

unt file, using branch_name a
s key
(see previous slide for details
).

49
Hash Functions
 Worst hash function maps all search-key values to the same
bucket; this makes access time proportional to the number of
search-key values in the file.
 An ideal hash function is uniform, i.e., each bucket is assigned
the same number of search-key values from the set of all
possible values.
 Ideal hash function is random, so each bucket will have the
same number of records assigned to it irrespective of the
actual distribution of search-key values in the file.
 Typical hash functions perform computation on the internal
binary representation of the search-key.
 For example, for a string search-key, the binary representations of all the
characters in the string could be added and the sum modulo the number of buckets
could be returned. .

50
Handling of Bucket Overflows
 Bucket overflow can occur because of
 Insufficient buckets
 Skew in distribution of records. This can occur due to two
reasons:
 multiple records have same search-key value
 chosen hash function produces non-uniform distribution of
key values
 Although the probability of bucket overflow
can be reduced, it cannot be eliminated; it is
handled by using overflow buckets.

51
Handling of Bucket Overflows (Cont.)
 Overflow chaining – the overflow buckets of a
given bucket are chained together in a linked
list.
 Above scheme is called closed hashing.
 An alternative, called open hashing, which does not use
overflow buckets, is not suitable for database applications.

52
Hash Indices
 Hashing can be used not only for file
organization, but also for index-structure
creation.
 A hash index organizes the search keys, with
their associated record pointers, into a hash
file structure.
 Strictly speaking, hash indices are always
secondary indices
 if the file itself is organized using hashing, a separate primary
hash index on it using the same search-key is unnecessary.
 However, we use the term hash index to refer to both secondary
index structures and hash organized files.
53
Example of Hash Index

54
Deficiencies of Static Hashing
 In static hashing, function h maps search-key values to
a fixed set of B of bucket addresses. Databases grow
or shrink with time.
 If initial number of buckets is too small, and file grows, per
formance will degrade due to too much overflows.
 If space is allocated for anticipated growth, a significant am
ount of space will be wasted initially (and buckets will be un
derfull).
 If database shrinks, again space will be wasted.
 One solution: periodic re-organization of the file with
a new hash function
 Expensive, disrupts normal operations
 Better solution: allow the number of buckets to be mod
ified dynamically.
55
Dynamic Hashing
 Good for database that grows and shrinks in size
 Allows the hash function to be modified dynamically
 Extendable hashing – one form of dynamic hashing
 Hash function generates values over a large range — typically b-bit
integers, with b = 32.
 At any time use only a prefix of the hash function to index into a table of
bucket addresses.
 Let the length of the prefix be i bits, 0  i  32.
 Bucket address table size = 2i. Initially i = 0
 Value of i grows and shrinks as the size of the database grows and
shrinks.
 Multiple entries in the bucket address table may point to a bucket (why?)
 Thus, actual number of buckets is < 2i
 The number of buckets also changes dynamically due to coalescing
and splitting of buckets.

56
General Extendable Hash Structure
In this structure, i2 = i3 = i, whereas i1 = i – 1 (see next

slide for details)
57
Use of Extendable Hash Structure
 Each bucket j stores a value ij
 All the entries that point to the same bucket have the same values on
the first ij bits.
 To locate the bucket containing search-key Kj:
1. Compute h(Kj) = X
2. Use the first i high order bits of X as a displacement into bucket ad
dress table, and follow the pointer to appropriate bucket
 To insert a record with search-key value Kj
 follow same procedure as look-up and locate the bucket, say j.
 If there is room in the bucket j insert record in the bucket.
 Else the bucket must be split and insertion re-attempted (next slid
e.)
 Overflow buckets used instead in some cases (will see shortly)

58
Insertion in Extendable Hash Structure
(Cont)
To split a bucket j when inserting record with search-key value Kj:
 If i > ij (more than one pointer to bucket j)

 allocate a new bucket z, and set ij = iz = (ij + 1)
 Update the second half of the bucket address table entries
originally pointing to j, to point to z
 remove each record in bucket j and reinsert (in j or z)
 recompute new bucket for Kj and insert record in the bucket
(further splitting is required if the bucket is still full)
 If i = ij (only one pointer to bucket j)
 If i reaches some limit b, or too many splits have happened
in this insertion, create an overflow bucket
 Else
 increment i and double the size of the bucket address table.
 replace each entry in the table by two entries that point to the same buc
ket.
 recompute new bucket address table entry for Kj
Now i > ij so use the first case above.
59
Deletion in Extendable Hash Structure
 To delete a key value,
 locate it in its bucket and remove it.
 The bucket itself can be removed if it becomes empty
(with appropriate updates to the bucket address table).
 Coalescing of buckets can be done (can coalesce only w

ith a “buddy” bucket having same value of ij and sam
e ij –1 prefix, if it is present)
 Decreasing bucket address table size is also possible
 Note: decreasing bucket address table size is an expensive operati
on and should be done only if number of buckets becomes much sm
aller than the size of the table

60
Use of Extendable Hash Structure
Initial Hash structure, bucket size = 2

61
Example (Cont.)
 Hash structure after insertion of one
Brighton and two Downtown records

62
Example (Cont.)
Hash structure after insertion of Mianus record

63
Example (Cont.)
Hash structure after insertion of three Perryridge records

64
Example (Cont.)
 Hash structure after insertion of Redwood
and Round Hill records

65
Extendable Hashing vs. Other Schemes
 Benefits of extendable hashing:
 Hash performance does not degrade with growth of file
 Minimal space overhead
 Disadvantages of extendable hashing
 Extra level of indirection to find desired record
 Bucket address table may itself become very big (larger than memory)
 Cannot allocate very large contiguous areas on disk either
 Solution: B+-tree file organization to store bucket address table
 Changing size of bucket address table is an expensive operation
 Linear hashing is an alternative mechanism
 Allows incremental growth of its directory (equivalent to bucket address
table)
 At the cost of more bucket overflows

66
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing
 Cost of periodic re-organization
 Relative frequency of insertions and deletions
 Is it desirable to optimize average access time at the
expense of worst-case access time?
 Expected type of queries:
 Hashing is generally better at retrieving records having a spe
cified value of the key.
 If range queries are common, ordered indices are to be preferr
ed
 In practice:
 PostgreSQL supports hash indices, but discourages use due to p
oor performance
 Oracle supports static hash organization, but not hash indices
 MySQL supports hash indices
67
Index Definition in SQL
 Create an index
create index <index-name> on <relation-name>
(<attribute-list>)
E.g.: create index b-index on branch(branch_name)
 Use create unique index to indirectly specify and enf
orce the condition that the search key is a candida
te key is a candidate key.
 Not really required if SQL unique integrity constraint is
supported
 To drop an index
drop index <index-name>
 Most database systems allow specification of type o
f index, and clustering.
68
End of Chapter
Partitioned Hashing
 Hash values are split into segments that depend on each
attribute of the search-key.
(A1, A2, . . . , An) for n attribute search-key
 Example: n = 2, for customer, search-key being
(customer-street, customer-city)
search-key value hash value
(Main, Harrison) 101 111
(Main, Brooklyn) 101 001
(Park, Palo Alto) 010 010
(Spring, Brooklyn) 001 001
(Alma, Palo Alto) 110 010
 To answer equality query on single attribute, need to look
up multiple buckets. Similar in effect to grid files.

70
Sequential File For account
Records

71
Sample account File

72
Figure 12.2

73
Figure 12.14

74
Figure 12.25

75
Grid Files
 Structure used to speed the processing of
general multiple search-key queries involving
one or more comparison operators.
 The grid file has a single grid array and one
linear scale for each search-key attribute.
The grid array has number of dimensions
equal to number of search-key attributes.
 Multiple cells of grid array can point to
same bucket
 To find the bucket for a search-key value,
locate the row and column of its cell using
the linear scales and follow pointer

76
Example Grid File for account

77
Queries on a Grid File
 A grid file on two attributes A and B can
handle queries of all following forms with
reasonable efficiency
 (a1  A  a2)
 (b1  B  b2)
 (a1  A  a2  b1  B  b2),.
 E.g., to answer (a1  A  a2  b1  B  b2),
use linear scales to find corresponding
candidate grid array cells, and look up all the
buckets pointed to from those cells.

78
Grid Files (Cont.)
 During insertion, if a bucket becomes full, new bucket
can be created if more than one cell points to it.
 Idea similar to extendable hashing, but on multiple dimensions
 If only one cell points to it, either an overflow bucket must be created or the
grid size must be increased
 Linear scales must be chosen to uniformly distribute
records across cells.
 Otherwise there will be too many overflow buckets.
 Periodic re-organization to increase grid size will help.
 But reorganization can be very expensive.
 Space overhead of grid array can be high.
 R-trees (Chapter 23) are an alternative

79

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Indexing and Hashing

Indexing and Hashing

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 Index files are typically much smaller than the

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Secondary index on balance field of account

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 Ki are the search-key values

 For i = 1, 2, . . ., n–1, pointer Pi either points

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B+-tree for account file (n = 3)

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B+-tree for account file (n = 5)

 Leaf nodes must have between 2 and 4 values

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B+-Tree before and after insertion of “Clearview”

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Before and after deleting “Downtown”

Before and After deletion of “Perryridge” from result of

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Before and after deletion of “Perryridge” from earlier example

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Example of B+-tree File Organization

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 Nonleaf node – pointers Bi are the

B-tree (above) and B+-tree (below) on same data

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 There are 10 buckets,

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Hash file organization of acco

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In this structure, i2 = i3 = i, whereas i1 = i – 1 (see next

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