INDUCTIVE AND

DEDUCTIVE REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples.

A conclusion based on inductive reasoning is called a conjecture.

A conjecture may or may not be correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and you predict the next number in the list
according to some pattern you have observed, you are using Inductive reasoning.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING
TO PREDICT A NUMBER
EXAMPLE 1.0
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists:

a) 3,6,9,12,15,?

SOLUTION:
a) each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we predict
that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b) 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

SOLUTION:
b) the first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears that
the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10
and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

EXAMPLE 1.1
 Let's check your progress

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a) 5,10,15,20,25,?
b) 2,5,10,17,26,?
SOLUTION
a) each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we predict that the
next number in the list is 5 larger than 25, which is 30.
b) the first two numbers differ by 3. The second and the third numbers differ by 5. It appears
that the difference between any two numbers is always 2 more than the preceding difference.
Since 17 and 26 differ by 9, we predict that the next number in the list will be 11 larger than
26, which is 37.
Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In example 2 we use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure.

EXAMPLE 2.0
 Use Inductive Reasoning to make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number

by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by two, and subtract 3.

Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture abut the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.
SOLUTION:

Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:

Original number: 5

Multiply by 8: 8 × 5 = 40

Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46

Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23

Subtract by 3: 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original
number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting with
100 as our original number produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting
number is four times the original number. We conjecture that following the given procedure
produces a number that is four times the original number.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING
TO SOLVE AN APPLICATION
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used
inductive reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing,
called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not
have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums in “heart-beats.” The following table
shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of convenience,
a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.
 Length of pendulum, in units Period of pendulum, in
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6

Use the data in the above table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the
following questions:

a) If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?

b) If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to is period?
SOLUTION:

a) In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus, we
conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.

b) in the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of
pendulum doubles its period.
COUNTEREXAMPLES
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case
for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement. In example 4 we verify that each statement is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.

Example 4.0 Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.

For all numbers x:

a) |x| > 0 b) x² > x c) = x

SOLUTION:

A statement may have many counterexamples, but we only need to find one counterexample
to verify that the statement is false.

a) Let x = 0. Then |0|=0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample.
Thus, “for all numbers x, |x| > 0” is a false statement.

b) For x = 1we have 1² = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample.
Thus, “for all numbers x, x² > x” is a false statement.

c) Consider x = -3. Then = = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have counterexample. Thus,
“for all numbers x, = x ” is a false statement.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form of proof.

It is, in fact, the way in which geometric proofs are written.

Deductive reasoning is the process by which a person makes conclusions based on

previously known facts.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning both strive to construct a valid argument.
Therefore, Inductive Reasoning moves from specific instances into a generalized
conclusion, while Deductive Reasoning moves from generalized principles that are known
to be true to a true and specific conclusion.

 Example:

In mathematics, If A = B and B = C, then A = C.

To earn a master's degree, a student must have 32 credits. Tim has 40 credits, so Tim will
earn a master's degree.
THINK ABOUT THIS
PROBLEM
To estimate the population of a town in upcoming years, one of the town workers
collected populations from past years and made this table:
Year Population
1950 7, 403
1960 7, 958
1970 8, 377
1980 8, 775
1990 9, 323
2000 9, 794
2010 10, 281
The town wants to Estimate the
pupolation 2015, 2018 and 2020. To do
this, will you be using inductive or
dedutive reasoning?
INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
In exercise 1 and 2, determine whether the agreement is an example of inductive reasoning and
deductive reasoning.

1. The computer Programs, a bubble sort and a shell sort, are used to sort data. In each of 50
experiments, the shell sort program took less time to sort the data than did the bubble sort program.
Thus the shell sort program is the faster of the two sorting programs.

2. If a figure is a rectangle, then it is a parallelogram. Figure A is a rectangle. Therefore, Figure A is a

parallelogram.

3. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence – 1, 0, 9, 32, 75, 144, 245,…

4. List the first terms of the Fibonacci sequence.

INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
5) In each of the following, determined the nth-term formula for the number of square
tiles in the nth figure.
             
a)  
 
 
     
   
     
           
     
             
 
     
                         
         
         
𝑎  1
 
𝑎3
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
𝑎2 𝑎4
𝑎5
b)                                      
 
                       
     
     
                         
             

𝑎1 𝑎4 𝑎5
𝑎2 𝑎3
6) A sequence has an nth – term formula of

Use the nth – term formula to determine the first five terms and the 105 th term in the
sequence.

7) Terms of a sequence

In a sequence:

, for n is ≥ 3. Find
Numbers of diagonals
A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects nonadjacent vertices (corners) of
the polygon. In the following polygons, the diagonals are shown by the blue line segment.

Triangle Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon

3 sides 4 sides 5 sides 6 sides
0 diagonals 2 diagonals 5 diagonals 9 diagonals

Use a difference table to predict the number of a diagonal in

a) A heptagon (a 7 sided polygon)
b) A octagon (a 8 sided polygon)
KENKEN PUZZLE: AN
INTRODUCTION
Kenken is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “Ken” has “knowledge" and “awareness” as
synonyms. Hence, Kenken translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.

In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased at a dramatic rate. More than a
million KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and KenKen puzzles now appear in many
popular newspapers, including the New York Times and the Boston Globe.

KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but they also require you to perform
arithmetic to solve the puzzle.
RULES FOR SOLVING A
KENKEN PUZZLE
For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, or 3.
For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers
1, 2, 3 or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers
1, 2, 3, …, n. Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.
Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must

combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner

of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.

Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.

A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row

or column.
 Here is a 4 by 4 puzzle and its solution.
Properly constructed puzzles have a unique solution.
column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4

row 1

row 2

4 squares
row 3

row 4

4 squares

A 4 by 4 puzzle with 8 cages The solution to the puzzle

BASIC PUZZLE SOLUTION
STRATEGIES
Single-Square Cages – Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number for that
square.

Cages with Two Squares – Next examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many cages that
cover two squares will only have two digits that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, in a 5 by
5 puzzle, a 20x cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 4 and 5 or 5 and 4.

Large or Small Target Numbers - Search for cages that have an unusually large or small target
number. These cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can be used to fill
the cage.
Examples:

In a 6 by 6 puzzle, a 120× cage with exactly three squares can only be filled with 4, 5, and 5.

A 3+ cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 1 and 2.

Duplicate Digit in a Cage – Consider the 3× cage shown at the left. The digits 1, 1, and 3 produce a
product of 3; however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row or the same column. Thus the only
way to fill the squares is to place the 3 in the corner of the L-shaped cage as shown below. Remember: A
digit can occur more than once in a cage, provided that it does not appear in the same row or in the same
column.
REMEMBER THE
FOLLOWING
In a n by n puzzle, each row and column must contain every digit from 1 to n.

In a two-square cage that involves subtraction or division, the order of the

numbers in the cage is not important. For instance, a 3- cage with two squares
could be filled with 4 and 1 or with 1 and 4. A 3÷ cage with two squares could
be filled with 3 and 1 or with 1 and 3.
MAKE A LIST OF POSSIBLE
DIGITS
For each cage, make a list of digits, with no regard to order, that can be used to fill the cage.
See the following examples.

 In a 4 by 4 puzzle, this cage can only be filled with 1, 3,

and 4 in some order.
Note: 2, 2, and 3 cannot be used because
the two 2s cannot be placed in the same row.
 In a 4 by 4 puzzle, this cage can be filled with 1, 1, 2,
and 4 provided that the two 1s are placed in different
rows.
Note: The combination 1, 1, 3, and 3 and the
combination 2, 2, 2, and 2 cannot be used
because a duplicate digit would appear in the
same row or column.
 In a 5 by 5 puzzle, this cage can be filled with the following
combinations:
5, 4, 1
5, 3, 2
4, 4, 2 provided the 2 is placed in the corner
4, 3, 3 provided the 4 is placed in the corner
PROBLEM SOLVING WITH
PATTERN
Terms of a sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65...

is called a sequence. The numbers of a sequence that are represent by commas are the terms
of a sequence. In above in the sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second term, 27 is the
third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. The three dots "..." indicate that the
sequence continues beyond 65. Which is last written term. It is customary to use subscript
notation to designate the nth term of a sequence.
That is,

- represents to the first term of a sequence

- represents to the second term of a sequence

- represents to the third term of a sequence

- represent to the nth term of a sequence

In the sequence 2,6,12,20,30...n² + n...

= 2, = 6, = 12, = 20, = 30, and = n²+n

 When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

What is the next nth term?

What formula or rule can be used to generate the term?

To answer the questions, we often construct a difference table, which shows the difference between
successive term of the sequence. The following table is a difference table for a sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...

Sequence 2 5 8 11 14 …

3 3 … (1)
First 3 3
differences
Each of numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the two closet numbers just
above it (upper right number minus upper left number). The differences in row (1) are called
the first differences of sequence. In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if
we use the above difference table to predict the next number in the sequence, we predict that
14+3=17 is the next term of the sequence. This prediction might be wrong, however, the
pattern shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each successive term is 3 larger
than the preceding term
 The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65,...

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 …

9 13 17 21 … (1)
First
differences … (2)
Second differences 4 4 4

In this table, the first difference are not all the same. In such a situation it is often helpful to compute the
successive differences of the first differences. These are shown in row (2). These differences of the first
differences are called the second differences. The differences of the second differences are called the
third differences.
To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of difference.
For instance, in the following table, the second differences shown in blue are all the same
constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues, then a 4 would also be next second difference,
an we can extend the table to the right as shown.

  Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 …

9 13 17 21 … (1)
First
differences … (2)
Second differences 4 4 4
Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the difference 21 to produce the next first
difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90 is the next
term in the sequence. This process can be repeated to predict additional terms of the sequence.

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90 …

9 13 17 21 25 … (1)
First
differences … (2)
Second differences 4 4 4 4
PROBLEM- SOLVING
STRATEGIES
Polya's Problem-Solving Strategy
 

Euclid and Pappus - are the mathematicians who were interested in solving
mathematical problems, but they were also interested in heuristics, the study of the
methods and rules of discovery invention.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) - the seventh century mathematician and the

philosopher who contributed to the field of heuristics. He tried to develop a

universal problem-solving method. Some of his ideas in Rules for the

Direction of the mind and his better - known work Discourse de la Methode.

George Polyo - was one of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a

study of problem solving. He was born in Hungary and moved to the United

States in 1940.
THE BASIC PROBLEM- SOLVING STRATEGY THAT POLYA
ADVOCATED CONSISTED OF THE FOLLOWING FOUR STEPS.

Polya's Four- step Problem - Solving Strategy

1) Understand the problem

2) Devise a plan

3) Carry out the plan

4) Review the solution

UNDERSTAND THE
PROBLEM 
This part of Polya's four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a clear understanding of
the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the following questions.

 Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?

 What are you asked to find or show?

 Can you restate the problem in your own words?

 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?

 Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?

 DEVISE A PLAN
Polya mentioned that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at
choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find
choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included:

• Guess and check • Look for a pattern • Make an orderly list

• Draw a picture • Eliminate possibilities • Solve a simpler problem

• Use symmetry • Use a model • Consider special cases

• Work backwards • Use direct reasoning • Use a formula

• Solve an equation • Be ingenious

CARRY OUT THE PLAN

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is
care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the
plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose
another. Don’t be misled, this is how mathematics is done, even by
professionals.
REVIEW THE SOLUTION

Once you have found a solution, check the solution.

Polya mentioned that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and
look back at what you have done, what worked, and what didn’t. Doing this
will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems.
EXAMPLE. SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEM USING POLYA'S
FOUR-STEP METHOD. EXPLAIN YOUR SOLUTION AS A STEP-BY-
STEP PROCESS, LISTING EACH OF THE FOUR STEPS IN THE
APPROPRIATE PLACE AND DESCRIBING BRIEFLY HOW YOU
APPLIED EACH STEP TO THE PROBLEM. ANSWER USING COMPLETE
SENTENCES.

Example 1:  Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that
number.  Find the number.

• Understand the problem

Make sure that you read the question carefully several times. 
Since we are looking for a number, we will let 
x = a number
• Devise a plan

Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that number

2(x – 1) = x +4

• Carry out the plan (solve)

2(x – 1) = x +4
2x – 2 = x +4
2x – x = 4 + 2
x=6
Review the Solution

If you take twice the difference of 6 and 1, that is the same as 4 more than 6,
so this does check. 
 

FINAL ANSWER:  The number is 6.

QUIZ BEE
I. Multiple choice
Question 1

Q1) Which comes next in the series?

Answer: B
A B C D E
Question 2

Q2) Which comes next in the series?

A B C D E Answer: D
Instruction: Tell whether it is deductive or inductive reasoning
3. I’ve never met a golden retriever with a nasty disposition. I bet there aren’t any.
A) Inductive
B) Deductive Answer: A
4. Mike must belong to the Bartenders and Beverage Union Local 165, since almost every
Los Vegas bartender does.
A) Inductive
B) Deductive Answer:
A or Reverend Green killed Professor Plum. But whoever ran off
5. Either Colonel Mustard
with Mrs. White did not kill the professor. Since Reverend Green ran off with Mrs. White,
Colonel Mustard killed Professor Plum.
A) Deductive
B) Inductive Answer:
A
Use Polya's Four- step Problem - Solving Strategy

6. I purchased a new TV at a local electronics store for $541.25, which included tax.  If the tax rate is
8.25%, find the price of the TV before they added the tax. FINAL ANSWER: The
original price is $500.
7. In a blueprint of a rectangular room, the length is 1 inch more than 3 times the width.  Find the
dimensions if the perimeter is to be 26 inches. FINAL ANSWER: Width is 3 inches. Length is 10
inches
8. Find the measure of each angle in the figure below.  Note that since the angles make up a straight
line, they are supplementary to each other.
FINAL ANSWER: The two angles are 30
degrees and 150 degrees.
9. The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258.  Find the integers.
FINAL ANSWER: The three consecutive integers are 85, 86, and 87.
10. The ages of 3 sisters are 3 consecutive even integers.  If the sum of twice the 1st even
integer, 3 times the 2nd even integer, and the 3rd even integer is 34, find each age.

FINAL ANSWER: The ages of the three sisters are 4, 6, and

8.