BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

SCIENCE COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

LECTURE SLIDES ON ELECTRONICS

CHAPTER 4

2022/2014
 Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics
 The operational amplifier is originally designed to
perform mathematical operations by using voltage
as an analogue of another quantity. This is the basis
of the analogue computer where Op–Amps were
used to model the basic mathematical operations
(addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation,
and so on)
 The operational amplifier (Op–Amp) is a ‘’Linear
Amplifier‟ with an amazing variety of uses.
 Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics
 An op-amp is an active circuit element designed
to perform mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication,division, differentiation
and integration.
 The op-amp is an electronic device consisting of a
complex arrangement of resistors, transistors,
capacitors and diodes.
 The Op – Amp has two inputs, INVERTING ( - )
and NON – INVERTING (+), and one output
 Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics
 The most popular Op – Amps are the μA 741,
NE741, and LM 741 Op – Amps .
IDEAL Op-AMPLIFIER
-infinite input impedance (Ri=∞ )
- Zero output impedance (Ro= 0)
- Infinite open loop gain (A= ∞)
-Vout=0 when Vin=0
- Infinite band width and slew rate
- Infinite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics
 Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics

• Based on these characteristics one can follow the following

golden rules which allow to logically deduce the operation of
any Op – Amp circuit. For an Op – Amp with external feedback:
• The Voltage Rule: The output attempts to do whatever is
necessary to make the voltage difference between the inputs
zero. That is, the difference of voltage at the input is
approximately zero. This consequence can be stated as:

V+ = V-
 Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics
• The Current Rule: The inputs draw no current.
That is, the current flowing into or out of the input
is approximately zero. This consequence can be
stated as:
I+ = I -
 Operational amplifiers and OP-AMP
characteristics
• INVERTING AMPLIFIER: In this circuit, the non
inverting input is grounded,Vi is connected to the
inverting input through R1, and the feedback resistor
Rf is connected between the inverting input and
output. Our goal is to obtain the relationship
between the input voltage vi and the output voltage
vo.
Applying KCL at node 1,
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
• But v1 = v2 =0 for an ideal op amp, since the non
inverting terminal is grounded. Hence,
= or

• A key feature of the inverting amplifier is that both

the input signal and the feedback are applied at the
inverting terminal of the op amp.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
• Note there are two types of gains: the one here is
the closed-loop voltage gain Av, while the op amp
itself has an open-loop voltage gain A.
• The voltage gain is Av= =
• Thus, An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity
of the input signal while amplifying it.
• Notice that the gain is the feedback resistance
divided by the input resistance which means that
the gain depends only on the external elements
connected to the op amp.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Example 1: For the op amp circuit fig. below
if Vi= 0.5V; Calculate
a) the output voltage vo, and
b) the current in the 10-kΩ resistor.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
a) Using Av= =
Av=- = -2.5
Vo =-2.5Vi =-2.5(0.5) = -1.25 V
(b) The current through the 10-k resistor is
I = = = 50µA
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Example 2: Find the output of the op amp circuit
shown in Fig. below. Calculate the current through
the feedback resistor.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
a) Using Av= =
Av= = 40
Vo = 40Vi = 40(30mV) = 1.2V
I = = = 10µA
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Example 3: Determine vo in the op amp circuit
shown in Fig. below.
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Applying KCL at node a,
=
Va Vo =12 2Vo
But Va = Vb = 2 V for an ideal op amp, because of the
zero voltage drop across the input terminals of the
op amp. Hence,
VO=6 6V
Vb=0=Va then Vo= V as we discussed earlier
 Non-inverting Amplifier
• In this case, the input voltage Vi is applied directly
at the non-inverting input terminal, and resistor R1
is connected between the ground and the inverting
terminal. Application of KCL at the inverting
terminal gives
I1=I2 =
But V1= V2 =Vi Hence the above equation becomes
= or
 Non-inverting Amplifier
• The voltage gain is Av= Vo/Vi = 1 + Rf/R1, which
does not have a negative sign. Thus, the output
has the same polarity as the input.
• A non-inverting amplifier is an op amp circuit
designed to provide a positive voltage gain.
 Non-inverting Amplifier
• Again we notice that the gain depends only on the
external resistors.
• Again we notice that the gain depends only on the
external resistors. Notice that if feedback resistor
Rf =0 (short circuit) or R1= ∞ (open circuit) or
both, the gain becomes 1. Under these conditions
(Rf =0 and R1 =∞ ), the circuit in the Fig. above
becomes that shown in the Fig. below, which is
called a voltage follower (or unity gain amplifier)
because the output follows the input. Thus, for a
voltage follower
 Non-inverting Amplifier

• Such a circuit has a very high input impedance and

is therefore useful as an intermediate-stage (or
buffer) amplifier to isolate one circuit from
another
 Non-inverting Amplifier
Example: For the op amp circuit in Fig. below
calculate the output voltage vo.
 Non-inverting Amplifier
• Applying KCL at node a (nodal analysis)
=
But va =vb =4V, and so vo = -1 V,
Or alternatively; using superposition
• Using superposition, we let
Vo= Vo1 + Vo2
• where vo1 is due to the 6-V voltage source, and vo2
is due to the 4-V input. To get vo1, we set the 4-V
source equal to zero. Under this condition, the
circuit becomes an inverter
 Non-inverting Amplifier

Vo1= - (6)= -15V

• To get Vo2 we set the 6-V source equal to zero.
The circuit becomes a non-inverting amplifier.

• Thus Vo= Vo1+Vo2= -15 +14= -1V

 Summing Amplifier
• Besides amplification, the op amp can perform
addition and subtraction.
• The addition is performed by the summing
amplifier.
• The subtraction is performed by the difference
amplifier.
• A summing amplifier is an op amp circuit that
combines several inputs and produces an output
that is the weighted sum of the inputs.
Summing Amplifier
 Summing Amplifier
• We keep in mind that the current entering each op
amp input is zero. Applying KCL at node a gives
i=i1+i2+i3

But
 Summing Amplifier
• We note that va = 0 and substitute in the above
equations we get

Indicating that the output voltage is a weighted sum

of the inputs. And it is called a summer/adder.
 Summing Amplifier
• Example 1: Calculate Vo and IO in the op amp
circuit in Fig. below.
 Summing Amplifier
Solution:
This is a summer with two inputs. So, using the
above equation, we will get

• The current io is the sum of the currents through

the 10-kΩ and 2-kΩ resistors. Both of these
resistors have voltage Vo = -8 V across them,
since Va =Vb = 0. Hence,
 Summing Amplifier
Example 2: Find Vo and io in the op amp circuit
shown in Fig. below. (Ans: -3.8V&
-1.425mA )
 Difference Amplifier
• The difference (or differential) amplifier amplifies
the voltage difference present on its inverting and
non-inverting inputs.
• Difference amplifiers are used in various
applications where there is a need to amplify the
difference between two input signals.
• The difference amplifier is also known as the
subtractor.
• A difference amplifier is a device that amplifies
the difference between two inputs but rejects any
signals common to the two inputs.
 Difference Amplifier
• Consider the op amp circuit shown in Fig.
below. Keep in mind that zero currents enter
the op amp terminals. Applying KCL to node
a,
Difference Amplifier
 Difference Amplifier
• Applying KCL to node b,

But Va = Vb. So by substitution we get

Difference Amplifier
 Difference Amplifier
• Since a difference amplifier must reject a signal
common to the two inputs, the amplifier must
have the property that Vo =0 when V1 =V2. This
property exists when

Thus, when the op amp circuit is a difference

amplifier, the Equation becomes
 Difference Amplifier
• If R2 = R1 and R3 =R4, the difference amplifier
becomes a subtractor, with the output
Vo = V2 V1
• Example: Design an op amp circuit using only one
op amp with inputs V1 and V2 such that
Vo =5V1 +3V2.
• Solution:
The circuit requires that Vo =5V1
From the equations we discussed
Difference Amplifier
 Difference Amplifier

• If we choose R1 = 10 kΩ and R3 = 20 kΩ, then R2

=50 k Ω and R4 =20 kΩ.
 The Op-Amp Integrator
• An ideal integrator is shown in Figure below.
Notice that the feedback element is a capacitor that
forms an RC circuit with the input resistor.
 The Op-Amp Integrator
• The capacitor will alter the gain of the
Op-Amp, since capacitive reactance is
inversely proportional to frequency.
• To compensate for this effect, a parallel
resistor (RF) is included in shunt with
the capacitor, as shown in figure below.
The Op-Amp Integrator
 The Op-Amp Integrator

• For the first figure above if we apply KCL

Iin=Ic
= Ic but Ic=CF
= CF = CF (0-Vout)
= - CF Vout
Vout = Vin (t)
Vout (t) = (t) dt + Vout (0+)
 Op-Amp Integrator
Example 1: A 5mV- 1KHz sinusoidal signal is
applied to the input of an op-Amp integrator for
which R= 100K and C= 1µF. Find the output
voltage. Show the solution.
 Op-amp differentiator
• Like the integrator Op–Amp, the capacitance will alter
the gain of the Op–Amp such that the capacitive
reactance of the input capacitor will decrease for input
signals that are higher in frequency, and therefore the
input voltage applied to the Op–Amp and output voltage
from the Op–Amp will increase with frequency.

• Including an additional resistor (Rin) in series with the

input capacitor, as shown in figure, will decrease the
high–frequency gain because gain will now be a ratio of
RF/Rin.
Op-amp differentiator
 Op-amp differentiator

• Applying KCL
I c = IF
Ic = C
C=
C=
= RF C
 Op-amp differentiator
Example 2: The input to differentiator circuit is a
sinusoidal voltage of peak value of 5mV and
frequency 1 KHz. Find out the output if R= 1000KΩ
and C= 1µF. Show the solution.
 Frequency response of closed loop op-amp

• The “frequency response” of any circuit is the

magnitude of the gain in decibels (dB) as a function
of the frequency of the input signal.
• The sinusoidal steady-state frequency responses of
circuits are of significance in many applications,
especially in communications and control systems.
A specific application is in electric filters that block
out or eliminate signals with unwanted frequencies
and pass signals of the desired frequencies. Filters
are used in radio, TV, and telephone systems to
separate one broadcast frequency from another.
 Frequency response
• The decibel (dB) provides us with a unit of less
magnitude. It is 1/10th of a bel and is given by

• When P1=P2 ; there is no change in power and the

gain is 0 dB.
• If P2=2P1; the gain is GdB=10 2 3 dB
 Frequency response
When P2= 0.5 P1 ; the gain is
GdB = 10 0.5 3 dB
• The logarithm of the reciprocal of a quantity is
simply the negative logarithm of that quantity.
• Alternatively, the gain G can be expressed in terms
of voltage or current ratio. To do so;
• If P1 is the input power; P2 is the output power
(load power) ; R1 is the input resistance and R2 is
the load resistance then P1=
 Frequency response

• P2= then
 Frequency response
• For R1=R2 a condition that is often assumed when
comparing voltage levels; the above equation
becomes

• In the same way P1= and P2 =

for R1=R2 we obtain
 Frequency response
• NB: Don’t be confused with the gain designation in
the previous sections with A and here with G. They
are the same thing.
• The frequency response of an op-amp is a low pass
characteristic (passing low-frequency signals,
attenuating high-frequency signals).
• The bandwidth is the frequency at which the power
of the output signal is reduced to half that of the
maximum output power. This occurs when the
power gain G drops by 3 dB.
 Frequency response
• For all op-amps, the Gain*Bandwidth product is a
constant.
• Hence, if the gain of an op-amp is decreased, its
operational bandwidth increases. proportionally.
This is an important trade-off consideration in op-
amp circuit design.
Frequency response
 Frequency response
• The Fig. shows the frequency response of a typical
op amp ,which confirms that the open loop gain
(with no feedback) at very low frequencies is huge.
• When Open loop Gain is quoted it refers to the
maximum AC gain at very low frequencies. It can
be seen from the Fig. that the LMC660 for
example has an open loop voltage gain of about
126dB (a voltage gain of nearly 2 million), but at
frequencies above a few Hz, gain begins to fall
rapidly at 20dB/decade until, at 1.4MHz the gain
has reduced to 0dB, voltage gain of x1.
 Frequency response
• In practice the huge gain of an op amp is greatly
reduced by applying an appropriate amount of
negative feedback. In this way an impressively level
response can be achieved, extending from DC (0Hz)
to any frequency up to about 1MHz or more, as well
as the added benefits of reduced noise and distortion.
The blue dotted line in the fig. above shows the
response of the op amp with negative feedback. The
gain has been reduced to 20dB, a closed loop voltage
gain (Acl) of x10, which has produced a flat response
from 0Hz to about 140kHz.
 COMMON-MODE REJECTION RATIO
• One of the more important features of a difference
amplifier, and also an Op–Amp is its ability to cancel
out or reject certain types of unwanted voltage
signals.
• These unwanted signals are referred to as “noise”
and can occur as voltages induced by stray magnetic
fields in the ground or signal wires, as voltage
variations.
• What is important in this consideration is that these
noise signals are not the signals that are desired to be
amplified in the difference amplifier in the voltage
variations in the voltage supply.
 COMMON-MODE REJECTION RATIO
• The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) relates
to the ability of the op amp to reject common-mode
input voltage.
• This is very important because common-mode
signals are frequently encountered in op amp
applications.
• The common-mode input voltage is an average of
the voltages that are present at the non-inverting
and inverting terminals of the amplifier.
 COMMON-MODE REJECTION RATIO
• The common-mode input voltage is an average of
the voltages that are present at the non-inverting
and inverting terminals of the amplifier.
VICM =
CMRR = 20 log(AD / Acm)
Acm =
Where AD-differential gain; Acm-common mode gain
 INPUT AND OUT PUT RESISTANCES
(IMPEDANCES)

• Input Impedance: The resistance 'looking–in' at

either input with the remaining input grounded is
known as input impedance.
• The Op-Amp has very high input impedance,
which is about 108  to 1010 , so that the current
taken from the source is minute. The input voltage
is passed to the Op–Amp with little loss.
 INPUT AND OUT PUT RESISTANCES
(IMPEDANCES)
• Out put Impedance: The resistance seen 'looking
into 'the Op–Amp's output is known as out put
impedance.
• The Op–Amp has very low out put impedance,
which is around 100  which results in an efficient
transfer of input voltage to any load greater than a
few Ks.
 DIRECT CURRENT PROBLEMS
Offset Voltage
• Input Offset Voltage :This is the voltage that must be applied to
one of the input pins to give a zero output voltage.
• Out put Offset Voltage: For an ideal Op – Amp, output offset
voltage is zero.
• Input Bias Current: This is the average of the currents flowing
into both inputs. Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal.

Input Offset Current: This is the difference of the two input bias
currents when the output voltage is zero.