Unit 2

Telecommunication Switching and
Network(140613/200613)
Dr. Hemant Choubey

Syllabus
• Unit 1 Introduction: Evolution of Telecommunications, Simple

Telephone Communication, Manual switching system, Strowger
Switching System, Crossbar Switching System, major
telecommunication Networks (PSTN, ISDN, WLAN, Ad Hoc Network).
• Unit 2 Switching: Circuit Switching, Store and Forward Switching,
Electronic Space Division Switching, Stored Program Control,
Centralized SPC, Distributed SPC, Enhanced Services, Two stage
networks, three stage network n-stage networks. Time multiplexed
Space Switching, Time Multiplexed time switching, combination
Switching, Three stage combination switching, n-stage combination
switching.
Syllabus
• Unit 3 Traffic Engineering: Network Traffic load and parameters, Grade of
service and blocking probability, Modeling Switching Systems, Incoming
Traffic and Service Time Characterization, Blocking Models and Loss
Estimates, Delay systems .
• Unit 4 Telephone Networks: Subscriber Loop Systems, Switching Hierarchy

and Routing, Transmission Plan, Transmission Systems, Numbering Plan,
Charging Plan, Signaling Techniques, In channel signaling, common channel
signaling, Cellular mobile telephony.
• Unit 5 Data networks: Data transmission in PSTNs, Modems, ISO-OSI/TCP-IP

Reference Model,Satellite based data networks, Data network standards
(ISDN, DSL / ADSL, Token Ring, Token BUS , Bluetooth , WLAN, ZigBee,
SONET / SDH).
Text book and Reference
• Text Book :
1. ThiagarajanVishwanathan, “Telecommunication
Switching Systems and Networks”; PHI Publications.
• Reference Books:
1. J. E. Flood, “Telecommunications Switching, Traffic
and Networks”, Pearson Education.
2. John C. Bellamy, “Digital Telephony”, Third Edition;
Wiley Publications
Unit 2:Switching
• Circuit switching
• A Circuit switching is a connection-oriented
network switching technique. A dedicated
route is established between the source and
the destination and the entire message is
transferred through it.
Unit 2:Switching
• Phases of Circuit Switch Connection
• Circuit Establishment : In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established
from the source to the destination through a number of intermediate
switching centres. The sender and receiver transmits communication
signals to request and acknowledge establishment of circuits.
• Data Transfer : Once the circuit has been established, data and voice
are transferred from the source to the destination. The dedicated
connection remains as long as the end parties communicate.
• Circuit Disconnection : When data transfer is complete, the connection
is relinquished. The disconnection is initiated by any one of the user.
Disconnection involves removal of all intermediate links from the
sender to the receiver.
Unit 2:Switching
• Diagrammatic Representation of Circuit
Switching in Telephone
Unit 2:Switching
• Advantages
• It is suitable for long continuous transmission, since a
continuous transmission route is established, that
remains throughout the conversation.
• The dedicated path ensures a steady data rate of
communication.
• No intermediate delays are found once the circuit is
established. So, they are suitable for real time
communication of both voice and data transmission.
Unit 2:Switching
• Disadvantages
• Circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection between
the end parties. This dedicated connection cannot be used for
transmitting any other data, even if the data load is very low.
• Bandwidth requirement is high even in cases of low data
volume.
• There is underutilization of system resources. Once resources
are allocated to a particular connection, they cannot be used
for other connections.
• Time required to establish connection may be high.
Unit 2:Switching
• Store and Forward Switching
• Working Principle
• The node which has a packet to send, delivers it
to the nearest node, i.e. router. The packet is
stored in the router until it has fully arrived and
its checksum is verified for error detection. Once,
this is done, the packet is transmitted to the next
router. The same process is continued in each
router until the packet reaches its destination.
Unit 2:Switching
• Working Principle
Unit 2:Switching
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Store − and forward packet switching ensures high quality data
packet transmission. Since erroneous packets are discarded at
each router, bad packets or invalid packets in the network are
mostly eliminated.
• However, error − free packet transmission is achieved by
compromising on the overall speed of transmission. Switch latency
is introduced due to waiting for entire packet to arrive as well as
computation of CRC. Though the latency at each router may seem
small enough, the cumulative latency at all routers make it
inappropriate for time − critical online applications.
Unit 2:Switching
• Difference between circuit switching and
packet switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
Circuit switching requires a dedicated path before Packet switching does not require any dedicated path to send data from
sending data from source to destination. source to destination.
It reserves the entire bandwidth in advance. It does not reserve bandwidth in advance
No store and forward transmission It supports store and forward transmission
Each packet follows the same route A packet can follow any route
Call setup is required No call setup is required
Bandwidth wastage No bandwidth wastage

Unit 2:Switching
• ELECTRONIC SPACE DIVISION SWITCHING
Unit 2:Switching
• STORED PROGRAM EXCHANGES
• Modern digital computers use the stored program
concept. Here, a program or a set of instructions to the
computer is stored in its memory and the instructions are
executed automatically one by one by the processor.
Carrying out the exchange control functions through
programs stored in the memory of a computer led to the
nomenclature stored program control (SPC). An
immediate consequence of program control is the full-
scale automation of exchange functions and the
introduction of a variety of new services to users
including:
Unit 2:Switching
• STORED PROGRAM EXCHANGES
(a) Common channel signalling (CCS),
(b) Centralised maintenance
(c) Automatic fault diagnosis,
(d) Interactive human-machine interface
Unit 2:Switching
• The two types of space division electronic switching systems, one
using electromechanical switching network and the other using
electronic switching network, are depicted in Figure . Both the types
qualify as electronic switching systems although only one of them is
fully electronic. With the evolution of time division switching,
which is done in the electronic domain, modern exchanges are fully
electronic.
Unit 2:Switching
• 3. CENTRALISED STORED PROGRAM CONTROL
(SPC) EXCHANGES
• Centralised control exchanges have all the control
equipment is replaced by a single processor which
must be quite powerful. It must be capable of
processing 10 to 100 calls per second, depending on
the load on the system, and simultaneously
performing many other ancillary tasks. A typical
control configuration of an ESS using
centralised SPC is shown in Figure
Unit 2:Switching
• Stored Program Control
• The Stored Program Control concept is where a
program or a set of instructions to the computer is
stored in its memory and the instructions are
executed automatically one by one by the processor.
Unit 2:Switching
• The exchange control functions are carried out through
programs stored in the memory of a computer, it is called
the Stored Program Control (SPC). The following figure
shows the basic control structure of an SPC telephony
exchange.
Unit 2:Switching
• The processors used by SPC are designed based on
the requirements of the exchange. The processors
are duplicated; and, using more than one processor
makes the process reliable. A separate processor is
used for the maintenance of the switching system.
• There are two types of SPCs −
• Centralized SPC
• Distributed SPC
Unit 2:Switching
• Centralized SPC
• The previous version of Centralized SPC used a single
main processor to perform the exchange functions.
The dual processor replaced the single main
processor at a later stage of advancement. This made
the process more reliable. The following figure shows
the organization of a typical Centralized SPC.
Unit 2:Switching
• Centralized SPC
• The previous version of Centralized SPC used a single main processor to
perform the exchange functions. The dual processor replaced the single
main processor at a later stage of advancement. This made the process
more reliable. The following figure shows the organization of a typical
Centralized SPC.
Unit 2:Switching
• Centralized SPC
1. Standby Mode
The processor in the standby mode is used as a backup, in
case the active one fails. This mode of exchange uses a
secondary storage common to both the processors. The
active processor copies the status of the system periodically
and stores in the axis secondary storage, but the processors
are not directly connected. The programs and instructions
related to the control functions, routine programs and other
required information are stored in the Secondary storage.
Unit 2:Switching
• Centralized SPC
2.Synchronous Duplex Mode
In the Synchronous Duplex mode, two processors are
connected and operated in synchronism. Two
processors P1 and P2 are connected and separate
memories like M1 and M2 are used. These processors
are coupled to exchange the stored data. A Comparator
is used in between these two processors. The
Comparator helps in comparing the results.
Unit 2:Switching
• Centralized SPC
3.Load Sharing Mode
• Load sharing mode is where a task is shared between
two processors. The Exclusion Device (ED) is used
instead of the comparator in this mode. The
processors call for ED to share the resources, so that
both the processors do not seek the same resource
at the same time.
Unit 2:Switching
• Distributed SPC
• This SPC has separate small processors called
the Regional Processors that deal with different
works, rather than just one or two processors
working on the whole thing like in the centralized
system.
Unit 2:Switching
• Distributed SPC
• The Distributed SPC has more availability and reliability than Centralized
SPC, because entire exchange control functions may be decomposed either
horizontally or vertically for distributed processing. Such distributed
control where switching equipment is divided into parts, each of which
have its own processor, is indicated in the figure below.
Unit 2:Switching
• Application Software
• The software of the SPC systems can be
categorized into two for better understanding
– System Software
-Application Software
Unit 2:Switching
• Process in a Multiprogramming Environment
• A Process in a multiprogramming environment may be one of the
following −
• Running
• Ready
• Blocked
Unit 2:Switching
• The state of a process is defined by its current activity and the process it
executes and the transitions that its state undergoes.
• A Process is said to be running, if an instruction is currently being
executed by the processor.
• A Process is said to be ready if the next instruction of running a process is
waiting or has an instruction that is timed out.
• A Process is said to be blocked, if it is waiting for some event to occur
before it can proceed.
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
• Enhanced Services
• It means any telecommunications service that
involves as an integral part of the service the
provision of features or capabilities that are
additional to the conveyance (including
switching) of the information transmitted.
Although enhanced telecommunications
services use telecommunications services for
conveyance, their additional features or
capabilities do not lose their enhanced status as
a result.
Unit 2:Switching
• Enhanced Services
• Categories of enhanced services

• 1. Services associated with the calling subscriber and designed to reduce
the time spent on dialing and the number of dialing errors.
• 2. Services associated with the called subscriber and designed to increase
the call completion rate.
• 3. Services involving more than two parties.
• 4. Miscellaneous services.
Unit 2:Switching
• Two stage network
• For any single stage network, there exists an
equivalent multistage network.
• Simple Two-stage NxN network
A NxN single stage network with a switching
capacity of K connections can be realized by a
two-stage network of NxK and KxN.
Unit 2:Switching
• First Stage: Any of the N inlets can be connected to any of the K

outputs. NK switching elements.
• Second Stage: Any of the K inputs can be connected to any of
the N outlets. NK switching elements.
• There are K alternative paths for any inlet/outlet pair connection.
Unit 2:Switching
• Single stage vs. Multistage networks
• Inlet to outlet connection
• Quality of link
• Utility of cross-points
• Establishment of a specific connection
• Cross-point & path Redundancy
• Number of cross-points
• Capacitive loading problem
• Blocking feature
• Call establishing time
Unit 2:Switching
• General two-stage networks
• Terminology
• Expanding network: M<N
• Concentrating network: M>N
• Square network: M=N
Unit 2:Switching
• Architecture of General two-stage networks
• Multiple small size matrices are used in each stage.
• Easy to be realized in practice.
• Flexible in system design.
• MxN two-stage network design
• Decomposition: M = p x r, N = q x s
• Switching matrices: p x s and r x q
• Full availability: There must be at least one outlet from each
block in the first stage terminating as inlet on every block of the
second stage.
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
• Parameters
• Number of switching elements
• S=psr+qrs=Ms+Nr
• Switching Capacity
• i.e., the number of links between the first and
the second stages.
• SC=sr
Unit 2:Switching
• Parameters
Blocking probability
• Blocking condition 1
• There are rxs calls in progress, and the (rs+1)-th call arrives;
• The blocking probability PB is dependent on the traffic
statistics.
• Blocking condition 2
• There is a call in progress from I-th block in the first stage
to the J-th block in the second stage, and another call
originating in the I-th block destined to the J-th block.
Unit 2:Switching
• How to choose values of r and s?
• Both S and SC are proportional to r & s.
• Blocking probability PB is inreversely proportional
to r & s.
• Strategy: Tradeoffs should be made between cost
and quality of service.
• The values of r & s should be as small as possible
but give sufficient links to provide a reasonable
grade of service to subscribers.
Unit 2:Switching
• Square two-stage networks
• Baseline networks
• Square switching matrices are used as building blocks.
p=r=s=q=N^1/2
• There are N^1/2 blocks, each block is a switching matrix
of N^1/2xN^1/2 inlets and outlets.
• Switching elements: S=2NxN^1/2
• Switching capacity: SC=N
• Support N simultaneous calls only if the traffic is
uniformly distributed.
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
• Nonblocking networks
• Why does blocking occur?
• Only one link exists between a pair of first stage and second stage
blocks.
• How to reduce the probability of blocking?
• Provide more links between the first stage and second stage blocks.
• How many links should be provided?
• A group of k=N^1/2 links should be provided for each pair of first
stage and second stage blocks.
• S=2N^2.
• In comparison with single stage network, the number of switching
elements is doubled.
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
• Three stage network
• General structure of an NxN threestage
• blocking network
• Stage 1: p x s switching matrices
• Stage 2: r x r switching matrices
• Stage 3: s x p switching matrices
• N=pxr, s is changable
• Compared with a two-stage network,there are s
alternative paths between a pair of inlet and outlet.
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
Number of switching elements
S=rps+sr^2+spr=2Ns+sr^2=s(2N+r^2)
If square matrices are used in both the first and

third stages, then p=s=N/r and S=2N^2/r+Nr.
For a given value of N, there exists an optimal value of r which minimizes the
value of S.
The optimal value of r is r=(2N)^1/2 and the corresponding minimum of S is

Smin=2N (2N)^1/2
p=N/r=(N/2)^1/2
Unit 2:Switching
• NxN three-stage blocking network
• Blocking probability analysis
• Probability graph
• Circle: stage
• Line: link
• A graph can be broken down into serial and parallel paths
• Notation
• β: probability that a link is busy.
• β’=1-β: probability that a link is free.
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
• Three-stage non-blocking configuration
Unit 2:Switching
• Three-stage nonblocking configuration
The number of blocks required in the second stage for non-
blocking
operation is s=2(p-1)+1=2p-1.
• The number of switching elements in the nonblocking
configuration is given by
• S=p(2p-1)r+(2p-1)r^2+p(2p-1)r
• =2N(2N/r-1)+r^2(2N/r-1)
• =(4N2-2Nr)/r+2Nr-r^2
Unit 2:Switching
• Three-stage nonblocking configuration
• There exists an optimal value of r for
minimizing the value of S.
• Let dS/dr=0, we have r^2(N-r)=2N^2.
• For large values of N, we have N-r≈N.
• Hence, r=(2N)^1/2, p=N/r=(N/2)^1/2
• The minimum S is Smin=4N(2N)^1/2
Unit 2:Switching
• Switching elements advantage ratio
Unit 2:Switching
• n-Stage networks
• Further reduction in the number of switching
elements are possible by using even higher
number of stages than three.
• Construction of multi-stage networks
• By replacing the middle blocks with three-
stage network blocks continually,any number
of stages can be obtained
Unit 2:Switching
Construction of five-stage
Unit 2:Switching
Construction of five-stage
Unit 2:Switching
• Space Switching
• The function of space switch is to transfer informatio
n between incoming and outgoing channels. It has tw
o types of operation modes: input controlling mode a
nd output controlling mode.
Unit 2:Switching
• Time Division Switching
• The incoming and outgoing signals when received and re-
transmitted in a different time slot, is called Time Division
Switching. The digitized speech information is sliced into a
sequence of time intervals or slots. Additional voice circuit
slots, corresponding to other users are inserted into this bit
stream of data. Hence, the data is sent in time frames.
Unit 2:Switching
• Time Division Space Switching
• A Time division space switch takes outputs of several time-division
switches (say, TSI switches) which are then given as inputs to space
division switches. This means that one of the two similar outputs produced
by a TDM switch, can be selected by space switch to deliver to another
output path which reduces the number of Crosspoints. The model of time
division space switch is as shown in the following figure.
Unit 2:Switching
• Time Division Time Switching
• The main advantage of time division time multiplexing
technique is that, unlike time division space switching, it
allows time slot interchange (TSI) of sample values. In TSI,
a speech sample input during a time slot may be sent to the
output during a different time slot, which implies a delay
between reception and transmission of a sample.
• The rate at which the time slot clock runs is 125-msec. The
time slot counter increments by one, at the end of each clock
pulse, the contents of which provide location addresses for
data memory and control memory.
Unit 2:Switching
• Combination Switching
• A combination switch can be built by using
a number of stages of time and space
switches. A two-stage combination switch
may be organized with time switch as the first
stage and the space switch as the second
stage or vice versa.
Unit 2:Switching
• COMBINATION OF TIME AND SPACE SWITCHES
• The time switch has a capacity limit as even with a memory cycle at 833 MHz (approx 1 ns)
only 125000 users can be served by a single switch. Advantage is however obtained in terms
of flexibility. To increase the capacity we use a combination of space and time switches as
shown below. Say user 4 on incoming line A wants to connect to user 10 on outgoing line Y
then the switching may be performed as A4 to B4 using a Space switch and then from B4 to
Y10 using a Time switch. Alternately we may perform the TS Interchanging first i.e. from
A4 to A 10 and then perform a space switching from A10 to Y10.
Unit 2:Switching
• COMBINATION OF TIME AND SPACE SWITCHES
• The space switch has a computer for control and is generally

multiplexed. To optimize the cost of this combination switch
we should have T as large as possible and augment many such
T switches using the S switches. In spite of this the
combination is not Non-Blocking
Unit 2:Switching
• 2-stage combination switches
• Time multiplexed time division space switches do not provide full
availability as they are not capable of performing time slot interchange.
Time slot interchange switches are not capable of switching sample
values across the trunks without the help of some space switching
matrices. Therefore, a combination of the time and space switches
leads to configurations that achieve both time slot interchange and
sample switching across trunks.
• A two-stage combination switch may be organized with time switch as
the first stage and the space switch as the second stage or vice versa.
Accordingly, the two switch configurations are known by the
nomenclature time-space (TS) or space-time (ST) switches respectively.
Unit 2:Switching
• Each time multiplexed inlet/outlet stream carries M channels.
A subscriber on the input side is assigned to one of the inlets
and a time slot in that inlet. An input subscriber assigned to
line i at time slot j is identified by the label Iij. Similarly, a
subscriber connected to the outlet m and time slot n is
identified by 0mn.The corresponding time slots are identified
as lSij and OSmn.
Unit 2:Switching
• The TS switch can be made nonblocking by using an
expanding time switch and a concentrating space switch. In
the worst case, all the subscribers in one line may want to
establish connection to the same output time slot. In order
that they can be accommodated without blocking, we need
(M - 1) additional slots for each time slot.
• The space switch must be able to establish M connections for
each input time slot. This implies M2 time slots on the output
side of TSI. A time switch providing expansion from M inlet
time slots to M2 outlet time slots is very expensive.
Unit 2:Switching
• The space switch at the second stage has to concentrate the
time slots on the output side. Design of such a space switch is
complex. Instead, the space switch may be symmetric with
regard to time slots and a concentrating TSI switch may be
added as another stage in the network.
• Similar to a TS switch, the Space-Time switch is also blocking.
This happens when the input samples originate from two
different inlets during the same time slot and are destined to
the same outlet though to different time slots.
Unit 2:Switching
• Three-stage time and space combination switches are more
flexible than their two-stage counterparts. The most common
three-stage configurations are:
• Those which place time stages on either side of a space stage
giving rise to TST configuration
• Those which place space stages on either side of a time stage
giving rise to STS configuration.
Unit 2:Switching
• A TST network is shown in the figure below. The two time
stage exchange information between external channels and the
internal space array channels. The first flexibility that becomes
obvious in this arrangement is that there is no need to have a
fixed space stage time slot for a given input or output time
slot. There are many alternative paths between a prescribed
input and output unlike a two stage network which has only
one fixed path. This factor reduces the value of the blocking
probability of a three-stage combination switch
Unit 2:Switching
Unit 2:Switching
Three-stage combination switches are still blocking. Consider a situation
when (M -1) slots in an inlet Ij are all busy. Let traffic arrive in the Mth
slot destined to a time slot outlet Ok. It is possible that during the time slot
M, the outlet Ok is busy receiving some other output. As a result, blocking
occurs. The worst case happens when (M -1) slots of Ok are busy and the
outlet is occupied for this purpose during (M - 1) slots when the inlet Ij is
free. If this happens, we would need one more additional time slot to
establish a connection between the free time slots of Ij and Ok. This means
that we need a total of (M-1) + (M-1) + 1 time slots, i.e. 2M- 1 time slots
in the intermediate space stage.
Unit 2:Switching
• Space-time-space (STS)
A space-time-space (STS) architecture consists of an N x k space matrix at the

input, an array of k TSI switches in middle and a k x N space matrix at the
output as shown in the figure above.
Unit 2:Switching
• In this architecture, the choice of input and output time slots is
fixed for a given connection. But the flexibility is provided by the
ability to utilise any free TSl switch by space switching on the
input and the output side. There are as many alternative paths
for a given connection as there are TSI switches.
• The expansion and the concentration take place at the space
switch level and not at the time slot level. The time slots are
symmetrical throughout the switch. Based on a reasoning
similar to the one used for TST switch, a STS switch is non-
blocking if k=2N-1
Unit 2:Switching
• Switches are designed to be concentrating when the utilisation of
the input links is low. As the input traffic intensity increases, less
and less concentration is acceptable. When the input loading
becomes sufficiently high, space expansion in the STS switch and
time expansion in the TST switch are required to maintain low
blocking probabilities.
• Time expansion is cheaper than space expansion. Hence, TST
architecture is more cost effective than STS architecture for higher
loads. There are, of course, other factors like modularity,
testability and maintain ability which must also be taken into
account before deciding on a particular architecture.
Unit 2:Switching
• Time Switch
• The time-slot interchange (TSI) system is referred to as time switching (T-
switching). Fig. shows the block diagram of time switch. Each incoming
time slot is stored in sequence in a speech memory (SM). The control
memory (CM) determines in which order the time slots are to be read from
SM. This means that a voice sample may be moved from say incoming
time slot 3 to outgoing time slot 1.
Unit 2:Switching
• Time Space Switching
• This switch consists of only two stages. This structure contains a time stage
T followed by a space stage S as shown in Fig. Thus this structure is
referred to as time-space (TS) switch. The space array have N inlets and N
outlets. For each inlet line, a time slot interchange with T slots is
introduced. Each TSI is provided with a time slot memories (not shown).
Similarly a gate select memory needs to be provided for the space array
(not shown).
Unit 2:Switching
• Let each time slot interchanger have T slots. If the space array is a N × N,
then the simultaneous connections possible is NT. If T = 128 and N = 16,
2048 connections can be supported. This structure is not free of blocking.
The control store is a parallel end around shift resister. If space array is at
the inlet side and time switch is at the output side, the structure is referred
as space time (ST) switching. Both TS and ST arrangements are equally
effective.
Unit 2:Switching
• Blocking Probability
Unit 2:Switching
• Blocking Probability
The probability that the same time slot on a different outlet is chosen by the
other subscribers on the same inlet

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Telecommunication Switching and

Dr. Hemant Choubey

• Unit 1 Introduction: Evolution of Telecommunications, Simple

• Unit 4 Telephone Networks: Subscriber Loop Systems, Switching Hierarchy

• Unit 5 Data networks: Data transmission in PSTNs, Modems, ISO-OSI/TCP-IP

No store and forward transmission It supports store and forward transmission

Call setup is required No call setup is required

Bandwidth wastage No bandwidth wastage

• Categories of enhanced services

• First Stage: Any of the N inlets can be connected to any of the K

If square matrices are used in both the first and

The optimal value of r is r=(2N)^1/2 and the corresponding minimum of S is

• The space switch has a computer for control and is generally

A space-time-space (STS) architecture consists of an N x k space matrix at the

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