Electromagnetic

Signals
ENGR. MARK JEFFERSON A. ARELLANO, ECT,
VCP, RTA
Electromagnetic Signals
Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic
field. The electric field and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at
right angles) to each other.

An electromagnetic (EM) wave can be described using VECTORS, as it has

both magnitude and directional components.
 Scalar vs Vector Quantities

Scalar quantities have only a magnitude e.g., mass charge,

temperature, speed, distance.

Vector quantities have a magnitude and a direction e.g, force,

velocity, momentum, acceleration, displacement
Types of Vectors
Zero Vector
 A vector whose initial and terminal points coincide, is called a zero vector or null vector

Unit Vector
 A vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit) is called a unit vector.

Coinitial Vectors
 Two or more vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial vectors.

Collinear Vectors
- Two or more vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to the same line, irrespective of their
magnitudes and directions.
Types of Vectors
Equal Vectors
 Two vectors are said to be equal, if they have the same magnitude and direction
regardless of the positions of their initial points.

Negative of a Vector
 A vector whose magnitude is the same as that of a given vector, but direction is
opposite to that of it, is called negative of the given vector.

Coplanar Vectors
 vectors that lie on the same plane in a three-dimensional space.
Vector Algebra – Vector Addition
Triangle Law of Vector Addition

 states that when two vectors are represented as two sides of the triangle with the
order of magnitude and direction, then the third side of the triangle represents the
magnitude and direction of the resultant or displacement vector.

 In general, if we have two vectors and, then to add them, they are positioned so
that the initial point of one coincides with the terminal point of the other.

R = a + b
Vector Algebra – Vector Addition
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
 states that if a number of vectors can be represented in magnitude and
direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then their resultant
is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon
taken in the opposite order.

c
R

R = a + b + c
Vector Algebra – Vector Addition
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
 If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by
the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the same point.

b
R

R = a + b
Example Questions
What is the displacement vector of the particle that moves from point P (2,3,5) to point
Q (3,4,5)?

A. 2i + 3j + 5k
B. 3i + 4j + 5k
C. i + j + 5k
D. i + j

j
k R = Final - Initial

(3,4,5) = (Q1-P1)i + (Q2-P2)j + (Q3-P3)k

(2,3,5) = (3-2)I + (4-3)j + (5-5)k

i =i+j
Example Questions
2. What is the magnitude of the vector of the particle that moves from point P (2,3,5) to
point Q (3,4,5)?

A. 2
B.
C. 4
D.

j
k

(3,4,5) |R| =
=
(2,3,5)

i
Example Questions
What is the resultant vector of the particle that moves from point A(2,2) to point B(3,5)
then from B(3,5) to C(6,6)?

A. 2
B.
C.
D.

j
C(6,6)
R = AB + BC
R
2 2 2
|𝑅| =| 𝐴𝐵| +|𝐵𝐶|
A(2,2) B(6,2) = =

i
Vector Algebra – Vector Subtraction
In order to subtract vector b from a, the direction must be reverse of vector b to
get vector (-b). Then it must be added : (-b) to a.

a 180º

R’ -b

R’ = a + -b

R’ = a - b
Example Questions
4. If initially, particle A has a velocity of a 5j + 3k and particle B has a velocity of
= 2i +
b is the resultant vector of these two vectors if the particle b moves on the
= 3i + 5j + 3k, what
opposite of its initial direction?

A. 2i
B. i
C. -2i
D. -i

R = a + -b

R = = (2i + 5j + 3k) + -(3i + 5j + 3k)

= (2i + 5j + 3k) + (-3i – 5j – 3k)
= 2i + 5j + 3k – 3i – 5j – 3k
= -i
Vector Product
The vector product or cross product of two vectors A and B is denoted by A × B,
and its resultant vector is perpendicular to the vectors A and B.
The cross product is mostly used to determine the vector, which is perpendicular
to the plane surface spanned by two vectors following the Right-hand Rule.

The dot product is used to find the angle between two vectors or the
length of the vector. 
Vector Product

The dot product or scalar product, geometrically is the product of the Euclidean
magnitude of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.

Please remember that in Dot Product:

Vector Product
Cross Product
If θ is the angle between the given two vectors A and B, then the formula for the
cross product of vectors is given by:

A × B = |A| |B| sin θ

Or,

Here, are the two vectors.

And are the magnitudes of given vectors.

θ is the angle between two vectors and

n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing the given two vectors, in
the direction given by the right-hand rule.
Vector Product

Please remember that in Cross Product:

i × j = k  j × k = i  k × i = j 

j × i = –k k × j = –I i × k = –j

i × i = j × j = k × k = 0
Vector Product
Cross Product of Perpendicular Vectors
If two vectors are perpendicular to each other, then the cross product formula
becomes:
θ = 90 degrees
We know that, sin 90° = 1
So,
Vector Product
Cross Product Matrix
We can also derive the formula for the cross product of two vectors using the
determinant of the matrix as given below.
A = ai + bj + ck
B = xi + yj + zk

A × B = (bz – cy)i – (az – cx)j + (ay – bx)k

= (bz – cy)i + (cx – az)j + (ay – bx)k
Example Questions

Find the cross product of the two vectors:

A. -4i -5j – k
B. 4i + 5j + k
C. 4i – 3j – k
D. 4i + 3j + k
Example Questions

What is the magnitude of vector -3i + 5j?

A. √34
B. √32
C. √8
D. √17

Let V = = -3i + 5j

|V| =
Calculus of Vectors
Calculus of Vectors
Vector Calculus or Vector Analysis
 deals with the differentiation and integration of vector field, especially in the
three-dimensional Euclidean space.

Euclidian Space
 is the fundamental space of geometry, intended to represent physical space.

Vector Calculus deals with two integrals:

1. Line integrals
2. Surface integrals.
Calculus of Vectors
Line integral
 also known as a path integral, or curve integral or curvilinear integrals.
 a line integral is an integral in which the function to be integrated is calculated along with a curve.

Surface integral
 defined as a generalization of several integrals to the integrations over surfaces. It means that we
can think about the double integral related to the line integral.
 
Calculus of Vectors
Curl
- is a vector operator that describes the infinitesimal circulation of a vector field in three-
dimensional Euclidean space.

- The curl of a field is formally defined as the circulation density at each point of the
field.
Example Questions
Calculate the curl for the following vector field.
F⃗ =x^3y62 i ⃗ +x^2y^3z^4 j ⃗ +x^2z^2 k⃗

A. curl F⃗ =(4x^2y^3z^3)i ⃗ +(2xz62)j ⃗ +(−2xy^3z^4+2x^3y)k⃗

B. curl F⃗ =(2x^2z^3)i ⃗ +(2yz^2)j ⃗ +(−2x^3y)k⃗
C. curl F⃗ =(−4x2y3z3)i ⃗ +(−2xz2)j ⃗ +(2xy3z4−2x3y)k⃗
D. curl F⃗ =0
Calculus of Vectors

Gradient

- Points in the direction of greatest increase of a function.

- Is zero at a local maximum or local minimum (because there is no single direction of

increase)
Example Questions

Choose the gradient of f(x, y) = x^2y^3

A. 2xi + 3y^2j
B. x^2 i + y^3 j
C. 2xy^3 i + 3x^2y^2 j
D. y^3 i + x^2 j
Calculus of Vectors
STOKE’S THEOREM
 also known as Generalized Stoke’s Theorem
 states that “the surface integral of the curl of a function over a surface bounded
by a closed surface is equal to the line integral of the particular vector function
around that surface.”
Calculus of Vectors

STOKE’S THEOREM

This means that:

If you walk in the positive direction around C with your head pointing in the direction of n,
the surface will always be on your left.

S is an oriented smooth surface bounded by a simple, closed smooth-boundary curve C with

positive orientation.
Calculus of Vectors
Divergence theorem
- states that the surface integral of the normal component of a vector point
function “F” over a closed surface “S” is equal to the volume integral of the
divergence of

taken over the volume “V” enclosed by the surface S. Thus, the divergence
theorem is symbolically denoted as:
Calculus of Vectors
Gauss Divergence Theorem
- the surface integral of a vector field A over a closed surface is equal to the volume
integral of the divergence of a vector field A over the volume (V) enclosed by the
closed surface.
Calculus of Vectors
Green’s Theorem
- is mainly used for the integration of the line combined with a curved plane. This
theorem shows the relationship between a line integral and a surface integral.
- Let C be the positively oriented, smooth, and simple closed curve in a plane, and
D be the region bounded by the C. If L and M are the functions of (x, y) defined
on the open region, containing D and have continuous partial derivatives, then the
Green’s theorem is stated as
Vector Identities
Derivative of a Vector Function
Derivative of a Vector Function
Properties of the Derivative of Vector-Valued Functions

 Let r and u be differentiable vector-valued functions of t, let f be a differentiable

real-valued function of t, and let c be a scalar.

Example Questions

Calculate the derivative of the vector function :

A. 8i + (8t + 2)j
B. 6i + (8t + 2)j
C. 6i + (8 + 2t)j
D. 8i + (8 + 2t)j
Derivative of a Vector Function
Directional Derivative
The directional derivative is the rate at which any function changes at any particular point in a fixed direction. It
is a vector form of any derivative. It characterizes the instantaneous rate of modification of the function. It
generalizes the view of a partial derivative.
Derivative of a Vector Function
Directional Derivative

 f with respect to a vector v at a point (e.g., position) x may be denoted by any of the following:

𝐷 . 𝐷=∇ 𝐹 . 𝑛
Where:

F = any function

n = unit vector of the direction

Example Questions

________ vectors are defined as two or more vectors in vector theory

that have the same initial point.
A. Coplanar
B. Coterminal
C. Exemplary
D. Coinitial
Example Questions

What is the minimum number of coplanar vectors with different magnitudes that can
be added to get a resultant of zero?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Example Questions

The law states that if several vectors acting on a particle at a time is represented in
magnitude and – direction by the various sides of an open polygon taken in the same
order, their resultant vector E is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing
side of a polygon taken in the opposite order.

A. Polygon Law of Vectors

B. Parallelogram Law of Vectors
C. Triangle Law of Vectors
D. Sine Law of Vectors
Example Questions

The resultant vector of vector A and B is _______ with respect to any of the two
vectors.
A. 45 degrees
B. 90 degrees
C. parallel
D. unity
Example Questions

Two vectors a and b, what is (2a-3b) x (2a +3b) equal to?

A. 0
B. B. a x b
C. 12 (a x b)
D. 4|a|^2 - 9|b|^2
Example Questions

Del operator is also known as _________

A. Divergence operator
B. Gradient operator
C. Curl operator
D. Laplacian operator
Example Questions

Find the gradient of a function V if V= xyz.

A. yz ax + xz ay + xy az
B. yz ax + xy ay + xz az
C.yx ax + yz ay + zx az
D. xyz ax + xy ay + yz az
Example Questions

Find the gradient of V = x^2 sin(y)cos(z)

A. 2x siny cos z ax + x2 cos(y)cos(z) ay – x2 sin(y)sin(z) az

B. 2x siny cos z ax + x2 cos(y)cos(z) ay + x2 sin(y)sin(z) az
C. 2x sinz cos y ax + x2 cos(y)cos(z) ay – x2 sin(y)sin(z) az
D. x siny cos z ax + x2 cos(y)cos(z) ay – x2 sin(y)sin(z) az
Example Questions

If W = x^2y^2 + xz, the directional derivative dW/dl in the direction 3 ax + 4 ay + 6

az at (1,2,0)

A. 5
B. 6
C. 7
D. 8
Example Questions

What is the divergence of the vector field f ⃗ =3x^2i+5xy^2j+xyz^3k at the point (1, 2,
3).
A. 89
B. 80
C.124
D. 100
The end