SQL

SQL is a language based on the relational model, designed for querying and managing data in an RDBMS. In the early 1970s, IBM developed a language called SEQUEL (Structured English QUEry Language) for their RDBMS product called Sytem R. The name of the language was later changed from SEQUEL to SQL because of trademark dispute. SQL first became an ANSI standard in 1986.

Categories of SQL
DDL (Data Definition Language)
Deals with object definition such as CREATE, ALTER & DROP

DML (Data Manipulation Language)

Allow you to query and modify data such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

DCL (Data Control Language)

Deals with permission such as GRANT & REVOKE

Categories of SQL
DDL (Data Definition Language)
Deals with object definition such as CREATE, ALTER & DROP

DML (Data Manipulation Language)

Allow you to query and modify data such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

DCL (Data Control Language)

Deals with permission such as GRANT & REVOKE

Data Types
Integer Data type
Data type bigint int smallint tinyint Storage 8 Bytes 4 Bytes 2 Bytes 1 Byte

Float data types

Data type float real Bit Data Type Data type bit Storage 4 Bytes/8 Bytes 4 Bytes

Storage 1 bit

char and varchar Are character data types of either fixed length or variable length. char [ ( n ) ] Fixed-length, non-Unicode character data with a length of n bytes. n must be a value from 1 through 8,000. varchar [ ( n | max ) ] Variable-length, non-Unicode character data. n can be a value from 1 through 8,000. max indicates that the maximum storage size is 2^31-1 bytes.

nchar and nvarchar Character data types that are either fixed-length, nchar, or variable-length, nvarchar, for Unicode data. nchar [ ( n ) ] Fixed-length Unicode character data of n characters. n must be a value from 1 through 4,000. The storage size is two times n bytes. nvarchar [ ( n | max ) ] Variable-length Unicode character data. n can be a value from 1 through 4,000. max indicates that the maximum storage size is 2^31-1 bytes. The storage size, in bytes, is two times the number of characters entered + 2 bytes.

DDL Commands
CREATE DATABASE DROP DATABASE CREATE TABLE ALTER TABLE DROP TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE

CREATE DATABASE In order to create a SQL Server database, CREATE DATABASE statement is used.
Syntax:

CREATE DATABASE <database>

for eg.

CREATE DATABASE EMPLOYEE DROP DATABASE In order to delete a SQL Server database, DROP DATABASE statement is used.
Syntax:

DROP DATABASE <database>

for eg.

DROP DATABASE EMPLOYEE

CREATE TABLE In order to create a table CREATE TABLE statement is used.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE <table_name> (<column1> <data_type>, <column2> <data_type> ..)

for eg. CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (Emp_Id int, EName varchar(50), Dept varchar(50), Contact varchar(50), Salary int)

ALTER
ALTER TABLE Once a table is created in the database, there are many occasions where one may wish to change the structure of the table. Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table_name> [alter specification] [alter specification] is dependent on the type of alteration we wish to perform. Common specifications are given below ALTER TABLE Add Column ALTER TABLE Rename Column ALTER TABLE Drop Column ALTER TABLE Add Constraint ALTER TABLE Drop Constraint

ALTER TABLE Add Column

To add new column(s) in table Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table_name> ADD <column1> <datatype> For Eg. ALTER TABLE Employee ADD Age int ALTER TABLE Employee ADD City varchar(50), Country varchar(50)

ALTER TABLE Drop Column

To delete column(s) in Table Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table_name> DROP COLUMN <column1> For Eg. ALTER TABLE Employee DROP COLUMN Age ALTER TABLE Employee DROP COLUMN City, Country

sp_Rename
This stored procedure is used to rename a table or column. To rename a table sp_rename 'employee','employee1' To rename a column sp_rename 'dbo.employee.Contact', 'ContactNo', 'COLUMN Note: use full qualified name when change column. dbo means Database Owner

DROP TABLE
DROP TABLE
This statement is used to drop a table. Syntax DROP TABLE <tablename> For eg. DROP TABLE Employee

COPY TABLE
If we want to create a copy of existing table.
Syntax Select * into <new_table> from <existing_table> For eg. Select * into employee1 from employee

TRUNCATE TABLE
Sometimes we wish to get rid of all the data in a table. One way of doing this is with DROP TABLE, which we saw in the last slide. But what if we wish to simply get rid of the data but not the table itself? For this, we can use the TRUNCATE TABLE command. Syntax TRUNCATE TABLE <tablename> For eg. TRUNCATE TABLE Employee

DML Commands

INSERT Command
Insert command is used to insert values in table. Syntax Insert into <tablename>(<col1>,<col2>,) values(<val1>,<val2>,..) Insert into <tablename> values(<val1>,<val2>,..) For eg. Insert into Employee values(201,'Anurag','Sales','9922445566',10000) Insert into Employee(Emp_Id, Ename, Dept) values(201, 'Anurag', 'Sales)

SELECT Command
This command is use to select records from table. Syntax SELECT <Col1, Col2, .> from <Tablename> For eg. SELECT * FROM Employee (To select all the columns from table, here * represents all columns) SELECT Emp_Id, Ename from Employee

SELECT - DISTINCT
If there are redundant rows in table and if want to show only distinct rows then we use the DISTINCT with SELECT. Syntax SELECT DISTICNT <colname> from <Tablename> For eg. SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Employee

SELECT - WHERE
If we want to select rows from table on some conditions then we use WHERE with SELECT. Syntax SELECT <colname> from <Tablename> WHERE <condition> For eg. Select * from Employee where Dept='Sales Select * from Employee where Dept<>'Sales Select * from Employee where Salary>5000

SELECT - AND OR NOT

If we want to select rows on the base of more than one conditions. For eg. Select * from Employee where Dept='Sales AND Salary>5000 Select * from Employee where Dept='Sales' AND Salary<>5000 Select * from Employee where Dept='Sales' OR DEPT='Purchase Select * from Employee where NOT Dept='HR'

SELECT - IN
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause. Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...) For eg. Select * from Employee where Dept IN ('Sales,HR)

SELECT - BETWEEN
Whereas the IN keyword help people to limit the selection criteria to one or more discrete values, the BETWEEN keyword allows for selecting a range. Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2 For eg. Select * from Employee where Salary BETWEEN 10000 AND 20000 Select * from Employee where Salary NOT BETWEEN 10000 AND 20000

WILDCARDS
There are times when we want to match on a string pattern. To do that, we will need to employ the concept of wildcard. In SQL, there are two wildcards: % (percent sign) represents zero, one, or more characters. _ (underscore) represents exactly one character. Wildcards are used with the LIKE keyword in SQL. Below are some wildcard examples: 'A_Z': All string that starts with 'A', another character, and end with 'Z'. For example, 'ABZ' and 'A2Z' would both satisfy the condition, while 'AKKZ' would not (because there are two characters between A and Z instead of one). 'ABC%': All strings that start with 'ABC'. For example, 'ABCD' and 'ABCABC' would both satisfy the condition.

SELECT - LIKE
LIKE is another keyword that is used in the WHERE clause. Basically, LIKE allows you to do a search based on a pattern rather than specifying exactly what is desired (as in IN) or spell out a range (as in BETWEEN). Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE {PATTERN} For eg. Select * from Employee WHERE EName LIKE 'A% Select * from Employee WHERE EName LIKE 'A__T'

SELECT ORDER BY
Often, we need to list the output in a particular order. This could be in ascending order, in descending order, or could be based on either numerical value or text value. In such cases, we can use the ORDER BY keyword to achieve our goal. Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table_name [WHERE <condition>] ORDER BY column_name [ASC,DESC]
ASC ASCENDING ORDER DESC DESCENDING ORDER

By default order is ascending For eg. Select * from Employee ORDER BY Ename Select * from Employee ORDER BY Salary DESC Select * from Employee ORDER BY Ename, Salary

SELECT FUNCTIONS
Since we have started dealing with numbers, the next natural question to ask is if it is possible to do math on those numbers, such as summing them up or taking their average. The answer is yes! SQL has several arithmetic functions, and they are: AVG: Average of the column. COUNT: Number of records. MAX: Maximum of the column. MIN: Minimum of the column. SUM: Sum of the column. SyntaxSELECT <Function_Type> <column_name> FROM <table_name>

SELECT AVG
SQL uses the AVG() function to calculate the average of a column. The syntax for using this function is, Syntax: SELECT AVG("column_name) FROM "table_name" For eg. SELECT AVG(Salary) from Employee

SELECT COUNT
Another arithmetic function is COUNT. This allows us to COUNT up the number of row in a certain table. Syntax: SELECT COUNT("column_name") FROM "table_name" For eg. SELECT COUNT(*) from Employee

SELECT MAX
SQL uses the MAX function to find the maximum value in a column. The syntax for using the MAX function is, SELECT MAX("column_name) FROM "table_name" For eg. SELECT MAX(Salary) from Employee

SELECT MIN
SQL uses the MIN function to find the minimum value in a column. The syntax for using the MIN function is, SELECT MIN("column_name") FROM "table_name" For eg. SELECT MIN(Salary) from Employee

SELECT SUM
The SUM function is used to calculate the total for a column. The syntax is, SELECT SUM("column_name) FROM "table_name" For eg. SELECT SUM(Salary) from Employee

SELECT Group By
Now we return to the aggregate functions. Remember we used the SUM keyword to calculate the total salary for all departments? What if we want to calculate the total salary for each department? Well, we need to do two things: First, we need to make sure we select the department name as well as total salary. Second, we need to make sure that all the salary figures are grouped by departments. Syntax :SELECT "column_name1", Arithmetic_Function("column_name2") FROM "table_name" GROUP BY "column_name1 For eg. Select Dept, SUM(Salary) from employee group by Dept Select Dept, AVG(Salary) from employee group by Dept Select Dept, MIN(Salary) from employee group by Dept

SELECT HAVING
Another thing people may want to do is to limit the output based on the corresponding sum (or any other aggregate functions). For example, we might want to see only the dept. with salary over 20000. Instead of using the WHERE clause in the SQL statement, though, we need to use the HAVING clause, which is reserved for aggregate functions. The HAVING clause is typically placed near the end of the SQL statement The syntax for HAVING is, SELECT "column_name1", SUM("column_name2") FROM "table_name" GROUP BY "column_name1" HAVING (arithmetic function condition) For eg. Select Dept, SUM(Salary) from employee group by Dept having sum(salary)>40000

SELECT AS
The keyword AS is used to assign an alias to the column or a table. It is insert between the column name and the column alias or between the table name and the table alias. The syntax for using AS is as follows: SELECT "table_alias"."column_name1" AS "column_alias" FROM "table_name" AS "table_alias

SELECT E.Emp_Id AS EmployeeID FROM Employee AS E

JOIN
STORES Store_Name New Delhi Ludhiana Trichi Chennai Sales 80000 120000 60000 80000 REGIONS Region_Name NORTH NORTH SOUTH SOUTH Store_Name New Delhi Ludhiana Trichi Chennai

If we want to find out sales by region. We see that table Regions includes information on regions and stores, and table Stores contains sales information for each store. To get the sales information by region, we have to combine the information from the two tables. Examining the two tables, we find that they are linked via the common field, "store_name". Select A1.Region_Name REGION, SUM(A2.Sales) SALES From Regions A1, Stores A2 Where A1.Store_Name=A2.Store_Name Group By A1.Region_Name

UPDATE Command
We use UPDATE command to update rows in table. We can give UPDATE with or without using any condition. Syntax UPDATE <table_name> SET <column_name>=<value> UPDATE <table_name> SET <column_name>=<value> WHERE <condition> For Eg. UPDATE Employee SET Company=XYZ Ltd. UPDATE Employee SET Dept=Media WHERE Dept=Advertisement

DELETE Command
We use DELETE command to delete rows from table. We can give DELETE with or without using any condition. Syntax DELETE FROM <table_name> DELETE FROM <table_name> WHERE <condition> Caution: If we give DELETE command without condition then it will delete all records from table. For Eg. DELETE from Employee (Delete all records) DELETE from Employee WHERE Dept=SALES