6B Atomic Structure
6B Atomic Structure
6B Atomic Structure
STRUCTURE
Unit 1
Chemistry
OBJECTIVES
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/ruthe
rford-scattering/latest/rutherford-scatteri
ng_en.html
E. GOLDSTEIN, 1886-1887
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qesxa71v
fkM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmUhkQj
Hr3A
TABLE SUMMARY
Neutron 1 0 Nucleus
For stable isotopes,
an interesting plot arises when the
number of neutrons is plotted versus the number of
protons.
Because the plot shows only the stable isotopes,
this graph is often called the Nuclear Belt of Stability
or Band of stability.
The plot indicates that lighter nuclides (isotopes) are
most stable when the neutron/proton ratio is 1/1.
CONT’D
c = νλ or ν = c/λ or λ = c/ν
ν= Frequency s-1 (Hz)
λ= Wavelength m or nm
C = speed of light ( 3x 108 ms-1)
• As energy is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation , the change n energy from one level to
another can also be calculated using the following equation:
E=hν
Where E = energy
ν= frequency
h is Planks constant which is
( 6.63 x 10-34 Js)
• By using both equations the energy can also be calculated by
• E=hc/ν
• Bohr labelled each of the energy levels with a number called the
principal quantum number, n.
• The energy level closest to the nucleus is labelled n=1, the next n=2 etc.
• The principal quantum number defines the energy level of the electron in
a given shell.
• The Bohr model of shells is one dimensional and accurately depicts
the quantum number of hydrogen but not the other elements with more
than one electron .
• When thinking about the position of the electron It is impossible to
determine both the position and the momentum of an electron in
an atom simultaneously with great certainty.
• This is know as The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Heisenberg showed an electron’s position can never be accurately be
determined.
• A wave function, however, tells where the electron will most
probably be found.
• Schrödinger Wave Equation. (assumes wave particle duality)
• This equation describes the electron in terms of probability
density ,the space in which the electron is likely to be found)
• The area the electron is located is called an orbital (spatial
distribution of electron density)
• Orbitals are defined by Quantum numbers: n, l, ml
• The electrons are distributed in identical lobes on either side of the nucleus.
• The lobes are separated by a nodal plane that cuts through the nucleus.
• When l = 1, ml has three possibilities, one along the x, y and z axes oriented at 900
angle to each other.
• As the orbitals are at different energy levels there are 3 basic rules to
writing electron configurations.
1- PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
• N
• O
• F
• Ne
• Then representing spins
• For a one-electron hydrogen atom, orbitals on the same energy level
have the same energy.
• As the number of electrons increases, though, so does the repulsion
between them.
• Therefore, in many-electron atoms, orbitals on the same energy level
no longer have the exact same energy
ENERGIES OF ORBITALS
• As this distance increases, the attraction of the positive nucleus for the
negative electron decreases and consequently the ionization energy
decreases.
THE SIZE OF THE POSITIVE
NUCLEAR CHARGE
• As the nuclear charge becomes more positive with increasing proton
number , its attraction for the outermost electron increases and
consequently the ionization energy increases .
• ( it should be noted that increasing atomic radii and shielding
outweighs the increasing nuclear charge . )
THE SCREENING (SHIELDING)
EFFECT OF THE INNER SHELLS OF
ELECTRONS.
• Electrons in the inner shells exert a repelling effect on electrons in the
outermost shell of an atom, this is called screening /shielding .
• This screening effect means that the effective nuclear charge is much
less than the full positive charge in the nucleus .
The screening effect by the inner electrons is more effective the closer
these inner electrons are to the nucleus which means that :
Electrons in shells of lower principal quantum numbers are more effective
shields than those of higher quantum numbers
Electrons in the same shell have a negligible shielding effect on each
other.
EVIDENCE OF ENERGY LEVELS
AND SUBSHELLS
• An element can have as much successive ionization energies as it has
electrons .
• The patterns in successive ionization energies for an element gives
important about the structure of the element .
WHY ARE SUCCESSIVE IONISATION
ENERGIES ALWAYS LARGER?
1 2 3 4 5
Ionisation 590 1150 4940 6480 8120
energy kJ
mol-1
• there is a big jump between the 2nd and 3rd ionisations energies which
means that this element must be in group 2 of the periodic table as the
3rd electron is removed from an electron shell closer to the nucleus
with less shielding and so has a larger ionisation energy
• The pattern in the first ionisation energy of each successive element in
the periodic table also gives us useful information about electronic
structure.
• The noble gases are always at the maximum peak for each period, but
there is a decrease in ionisation energy down the group. (true of all
groups). This is because as one goes down the group the outer
electrons become further from the nucleus and become more shielded
from the nuclear pull by complete inner shells
• There is a large drop each time between the group 0 elements and the
group1 elements. This is because the element in group 1 will have its
outer electron in a new shell further from the nucleus and is more
shielded. So the group 1 element is easier to remove and has a lower
ionisation energy
From the graphs of successive ionisation energies below, explain which
group of the periodic table the elements belong to.
• 2) Study the graph of 4th to 11th ionisation energies for aluminium.
• a) Explain why there is a large increase in ionisation energy between
the 9th and 10th ionisation energies.
• b) Explain why the increase between the 6th and 7th ionisation
energies is greater than the increase between the 5th and 6th ionisation
energies.