HYAP 322

HYDROLOGY
ENGR. JESSA MAE A. GOMEZ, CE
PART I
DESCRIPTIVE HYDROLOGY
OUTLINE

o HYDROLOGY (DEFINITION & IMPORTANCE)

o SCIENCE ALLIED TO HYDROLOGY
o HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
 HYDROLOGY
o The Science that treats of the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical
and physical properties, their reaction to environment,
including their relation to the living things.

Hydrology is dependent on some allied Sciences such as

the following:
1. Meteorology and Climatology
2. Physical Geography
3. Agronomy and Forestry
4. Geology and Soil Sciences
5. Oceanography
6. Hydraulics

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 METEOROLOGY
• The Science which deals with the atmospheric phenomenon and the basic
laws that produce atmosphere, the agent through which many of the
hydrologic characteristics are brought about.

CLIMATOLOGY
• The subdivision of Meteorology which deals with the means and extremes of
weather phenomenon.

PAG-ASA
• Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
• The agency concerned with weather conditions.

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 Meteorology and Climatology are related to Hydrology since weather
of a region governs many of its hydrologic features through rain, snow,
evaporation, heat, cold and wind.

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 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
• Hydrology is affected materially by the physical features of the earth’s surface.
• From Geography, knowledge is obtained of mountains that may increase or
obstruct precipitation, of steep slopes that may increase run-off, and of lakes
and swamps that may store and retard run-off.

AGRONOMY AND FORESTRY

• Hydrology is also concerned with the character and distribution of vegetable
cover in a locality.
• Vegetation has an important effect on the rate of run-off, the amount of water
evaporated, and the ability of the soil cover two infiltrate water.

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 GEOLOGY AND SOIL SCIENCE
• The distribution of water on and within the earth’s surface is greatly affected
by the composition of the earth’s crust.

OCEANOGRAPHY
• Oceans and great inland bodies are nature’s reservoirs from which moisture is
brought to land surface by way of the atmosphere.

HYDRAULICS
• The Sciences (Hydrology & Hydraulics) overlap to such extent that it becomes a
matter of opinion which procedure can be called purely hydrology, and which
purely hydraulic.
• The steady flow of water in river channels, the transmission of flood waves, the
infiltration of water into the ground, etc. involve hydraulics principles.

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 HYDROLOGY AND ITS
RELATION TO WATER
RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT
The most important use of Hydrology
in Water Resources Engineering is in
the structural and hydraulic design of
water control structures, municipal
and industrial water supply, irrigation
structures, power development, flood
control, river navigation, erosion
control and in pollution abatement.

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 The process of water circulation may be discussed in the
following steps:

o Evaporation of water from the surface of seas and oceans,

lakes, swamps; from the surface of the soil, and from the
leaves of plants through transpiration.
o Lifting of the moisture to the atmosphere and its
condensation. Lifting may be orographic, cyclonic or
convective.
HYDROLOGIC o Falling of water to the earth’s surface as precipitation.

CYCLE o Part of precipitation after interception of the foliage

evaporates to the atmosphere.
o Part of precipitation runs-off the ground surface going to
The hydrologic cycle is the the rivers and streams.
unending circulation of water o Part of precipitation soaks into the ground, some infiltrates
from the seas to the to the deeper zones which may join the groundwater, while
atmosphere, to the ground some may flow as spring to streams and eventually lead back
surface back to the seas again. the water to the seas and oceans from it originated.

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 To summarize, the following are the processes that composed
the Hydrologic Cycle:
1. Evaporation – the transfer of water from liquid to vapor state.
2. Lifting – the process of bringing to the atmosphere the
evaporated water.
3. Condensation – the change of moisture from vapor to liquid state.
4. Precipitation – the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the
earth’s surface.
5. Interception – the suspension of a portion of the precipitation by
vegetation.
6. Run-off – the flow of water on the earth’s surface due to the action
of gravity.
7. Percolation – the downward movement of water into the ground.
8. Infiltration – the underground movement of water to the deeper
zone to join groundwater.
9. Transpiration – the process wherein moisture is released into the
air by the leaves of the plants.
10. Storage – the accumulation of water in the oceans, seas or in
man-made reservoirs.

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PART II
PRECIPITATION
OUTLINE

o FORMS & KINDS OF PRECIPITATION

o OCCURENCES & DISPOSAL OF PRECIPITATION
o RAINFALL MEASUREMENTS
o COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL
 PRECIPITATION
o Includes all water which fall from the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface.
o It is always expressed as the depth of
liquid water on a horizontal surface in
a day, in a month, or a year, and so
designated as daily, monthly or
annual precipitation.

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 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Depending upon meteorological conditions,
precipitation occurs mainly in two forms:

Liquid precipitation
which runs-off to the streams soon after it
reaches the ground. It is the cause of most floods.

Frozen precipitation
that remains where it falls for a long time before it
melts.

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 A brief description of various forms of precipitation are as follows:

1. Rain – when the water droplets are over 0.5 mm

in diameter.

2. Drizzle – when the water droplets are under 0.5

mm in diameter and of intensity less than 1 mm
per hour.

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 A brief description of various forms of precipitation are as follows:

3. Dew – it is found by the condensation of water vapor

present in the air due to the cooling of the ground surface
and of the air immediately above it. Dew are tiny drops of
water that form on cool surfaces at night, when
atmospheric vapor condenses.
4. Fog – consists of water droplets so small and with
negligible fall velocities that they stay in the atmosphere
at or near the earth’s surface which obscures or restricts
visibility. Fog particles which come in contact with
vegetation may adhere and coalesce with other droplets
that they eventually form a large drop to fall on the
ground and is called fog drips.
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 A brief description of various forms of precipitation are as follows:

5. Glaze – it is drizzle or rain frozen as it comes in

contact with cold objects at water surface.

6. Sleet – it is frozen raindrops cooled to ice stage

while falling through air at sub-freezing
temperature.

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 A brief description of various forms of precipitation are as follows:

7. Snow – it is precipitation from the atmosphere in

the form of branched hexagonal crystals, often
mixed with simple ice crystals, which fall more or
less continuously from a solid clout sheet.

8. Snow Flakes – it is the form of a number of ice

crystals fused together.

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 KINDS OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is often classified according to the factor responsible for the lifting of air masses, as the
following:
1. Convective Precipitation

• It results from the upward movement of

the air that is warmer than its
surroundings. The effect maybe caused by
the difference between hot bare fields
and cool woods; between land and lake;
or between streets and roofs of the city
that is warmer than the surrounding
countryside.
• Convective precipitation is spotty, and its
intensity varies from light showers to
cloud burst, depending on the
temperature and moisture condition. This
process accounts for the formation of
most thunderstorms.

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 KINDS OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is often classified according to the factor responsible for the lifting of air masses, as the
following:
2. Orographic Precipitation

• Precipitation caused by dynamic cooling of air as Windward side Leeward Side

an air current rises over a mountain barrier is
termed as orographic or mountain type
precipitation.
• When moisture-bearing winds, usually blowing
from oceans to land surface are forced up by the
influence of coastal mountain ranges the cooling
and condensation processes take place and
precipitation occurs at the windward slopes of the
mountains.
• Precipitation is heavier on the windward slopes
than on the leeward sides. Orographic
precipitation is ordinarily of low intensity unless it
is associated with cyclonic or convective action.

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 KINDS OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is often classified according to the factor responsible for the lifting of air masses, as the
following:
3. Cyclonic Precipitation

• It is the precipitation associated with the passages

of depressions or cyclones. It results from the
lifting of air converging into a low-pressure area,
or cyclones (circular are of low atmospheric
pressure in which the wind blow
counterclockwise).
• Intense cyclonic circulation causes a
concentration or converge of moisture-bearing air
which may result in heavy and prolonged
precipitation.

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 PRECIPITATION OCCURENCE DISPOSAL OF PRECIPITATION
• Water vapor , from which precipitation is derived, is Precipitation that reaches the surface of the
present in the atmosphere as a gas, in varying earth is disposed off by the following
amount at all times.
processes:
• About one-half of the total moisture in the
atmosphere is located below an altitude of 2000
meters. The moisture content decreases with the
1. Run-off
altitude. 2. Evaporation
• The amount of water vapor which a given quantity
3. Percolation
of air can hold varies with temperature. Warm air
can retain a large amount of moisture without this
moisture tending to condense, bit if the
temperature is lowered, a certain point is reached
when the moisture tends to separate out, generally
in the form of cloud or condensed particles of vapor.
• Air at this temperature, called the dew point, the air
is said to be saturated.
• The wetness of the air under any condition is known
as the relative humidity.
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 The factors that affect the disposal of precipitation are classified
as follows:
1. Meteorological Conditions
o Relative Humidity. It also affects
o Precipitation. Precipitation disposal evaporation which is more less inversely
depends on the amount, intensity, proportional to humidity.
occurrence, on the area covered and o Wind. Wind velocity affects the amount
seasonal distribution of precipitation of evaporation and interception losses.
throughout the year.
o Temperature. The disposal of
precipitation is affected by the
temperature because evaporation and
transpiration losses increased with
temperature, being the minimum during
winter and maximum during summer.
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 The factors that affect the disposal of precipitation are classified
as follows:
 Geology. The disposal of precipitation is
2. Drainage-area Characteristics
influenced by the character of the surface and
Drainage area, or river basin, or catchment, or subsurface conditions such as perviousness,
watershed is the area tributary to a given point of a depth of strata, presence of faults, fissures, etc.
stream and is separated from adjacent basin by a  Conditions of surface area. The rate of disposal
divide or ridge.
of precipitation by evaporation, percolation,
and run-off is affected by the condition of the
land surface such as whether it is bare,
Some of its characteristics that affect disposal of
vegetated or cultivated.
precipitation are:
 Topography. The disposal of precipitation is
greatly affected by the slopes of the land surface.
 Size and Shape of catchment. The size and
shape of the drainage area also determine the
rate of disposal of precipitation.

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 The factors that affect the disposal of precipitation are classified
as follows:

3. Storage Characteristics 1. Vapor pressure difference

2. Temperature of the air and water
Lakes, artificial reservoirs, swamps, etc., tend 3. Relative humidity
to increase water losses due to greater 4. Atmospheric pressure
evaporation from water areas compared to land 5. Wind velocity
areas. 6. Water depth
Water losses comprise the difference 7. Water surface area
between run-off and precipitation. They take 8. Water quality
place from water surface as well as land areas.

Evaporation from water areas is the process under

which a portion of water near its surface is changed
to gaseous state or water vapor. This changed is
affected by the following factors:

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 The water losses on account of the evaporation of
rainfall at or just below the ground surface is termed Water losses per annum due to evaporation of rainfall
soil evaporation. T depends upon the following: caught and held in suspension by vegetation which is
evaporated before reaching the ground is known as
1. Land surface condition interception.
2. Soil & subsoil characteristics
3. Temperature It varies with the kind of storm and the kind of
4. Relative humidity vegetation.
5. Wind velocity The percentage of interception losses is highest, nearly
6. Slope of the ground 100% in light showers and about25% under heavy rains.
Interception is measured by instruments called
Interceptometer interceptometers.

Another method wherein water

is lost from the soil is
transpiration. The plants draw
water from the soil and after
using it for building of plant
tissues, evaporate most of it
into the atmosphere.
Transpiration rate is
determined by the use of
instruments such as the
potometer or the phytometer.
Potometer

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 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
• Rainfall is described as the total liquid The following causes are favorable
product or condensation from the to abundant rainfall
atmosphere as received and
measured in a rain gage (the 1. Proximity to the ocean or large
instrument used for measuring areas of water
rainfall). 2. Mountain formations
3. Winds
• The amount of precipitation is
expressed as the depth in inches or
4. Location on or near the tract
millimeters which falls on a level of cyclones
surface.

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 Types of Rain Gauges
1. Standard rain gauge.
It consists of a funnel 200 mm (8”) in
diameter and discharging into a tube
having an area of one-tenth of the
funnel and a measuring stick used to
determine the height of water in the
tube. The reading divided by 10, is
the rainfall. Precipitation in excess of
50 mm (2”) overtops the inner tube
and collects in the overflow can.

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 The kinds of recording rain gage are:
Types of Rain Gauges a) Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge – the most
common type. It has a bucket supported by
2. Storage gauge a spring or lever balance.
These are large rain gages used in Movement of the bucket is transmitted to a
remote areas to catch and store rain pen which traces a record of the increasing
fall for periods of 30 days or more. weight of the bucket and its content on a
clock driven chart.

3. Self-recording Rain Gauge

These are used to determine rates of
rainfall over short period of time.
They give continuous records of
rainfall in the form of a pen trace on
a clock-driven chart.

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 Under the funnel a pair of buckets are pivoted
(the central point which balances) in such
Types of Rain Gauges away that when one bucket receives 0.25
mm (0.01”) of rainfall it tips (to fall or turn
over), discharging its contents into reservoir
b) Tipping Bucket Rain Gage – bringing another bucket under funnel.
consists of a pair of bucket pivoted Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit
under a funnel in such a way that causing the movement of pen to mark on
when one bucket receives 0.25 mm clock driven revolving drum which carries a
(0.01”) of rain, it tips discharging its record sheet.
contents into a reservoir and bringing
the other bucket under the funnel. A
recording mechanism indicates the
time of occurrence of its tip.
Consists of 30 cm dia. sharp edge
receiver.
At the end of receiver funnel is
provided.

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 Advantages of Self-Recording Rain
Types of Rain Gauges Gauge
1. Automatic recording of
c) Float type Rain Gauge – rainfall obviates he necessity
of attendant.
it has 127 mm funnel, a rectangular 2. It indicates intensity as well
float chamber containing at its as the total amount of
bottom a light, hollow float. As the rainfall.
water level rises, in the chamber, 3. Very useful in obtaining the
the float also rises. The movement data from the inaccessible
places.
is transmitted through a suitable
4. The elements of human error
mechanism to a pen when moves a is eliminated.
revolving chart to give a mass
5. The capacity of the gages is
diagram of the rainfall. big.
6. It also measures the time
duration of rainfall.

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 Measurement of Rainfall by Radar
 Radars are versatile instruments for measuring rainfall.

 Estimations are made by photographic or electronic integration of

echoes ware then correlated with the measured rainfall. The amount
reflected is dependent on the raindrop size and the distance from the
transmitter.

 One radar is capable of measuring rainfall to a range of about 100

km with the accuracy as is obtainable with 100 rain gages with
network commonly used for climatological purposes.

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 COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN
• The rainfall measurements, recorded at Arithmetic Unweighted Mean Method
various rain gauge stations are then • It is the simplest method of working out the
converted into aerial area. equivalent average depth of rainfall over the
• If one rain gauge is used, the rainfall is catchment area by taking simple arithmetic
applied over the area. mean of the rainfall records at various gage
• Where more than one rain gauge is used, stations irrespective of the area covered by
the following methods may be employed each station.
to determine the average rainfall over a • The results obtained by this method involve
basin: large errors if the rain gages are not
1. Arithmetic Unweighted mean distributed uniformly over the area and if
Method there are differences of topography or rainfall
rates also in actual storm situation.
2. Thiessen Polygon Method
3. Isohyetal Method
=
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 COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN
Continuation: 𝑃 1=12 𝑚𝑚 Thiessen polygon method
𝑃 2=20 𝑚𝑚
• It is also called the weighted mean method.
𝑃 3=30 𝑚𝑚
It consists of constructing a Thiessen Network
by connecting adjacent stations on a map by
𝑃 4 =27 𝑚𝑚 𝑃 7=15 𝑚𝑚 straight lines and erecting perpendicular to
each connecting line.
𝑃 6=35 𝑚𝑚
• The polygon formed by the perpendicular
𝑃 8=25 𝑚𝑚
bisectors around a station encloses area
𝑃 5=25 𝑚𝑚
which is everywhere closer to that station
than to any other station.
𝑃 10 =28 𝑚𝑚 𝑃 9=20 𝑚𝑚
• This area is assumed to be best represented
by the precipitation at the enclosed station,
(12+20 +30+27+ 35+15+25+20 +28)
often a reasonable assumption, but may not
𝑃 𝑎𝑣𝑒=
10
=23.7 𝑚𝑚 always be correct.
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 COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN
Thiessen polygon method
• To compute the average rainfall, multiply
the area of each polygon by the rain gage
value of the station enclosed, find the
total area of the watershed, and
determine the average rainfall from the
equation:

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM
In a catchment area with given boundaries, area (km2) covered by each station and
precipitations (cm) for every station, determine the average precipitation by Thiessen
method by completing the table.

𝑃𝑥𝐹
2141
7854
=0.2726 36.8555
1605
7854
=0.20435 19.475
2141
7854
=0.2726 39.9086
1963
7854
=0.24994 25.5435
𝟏𝟐𝟏 . 𝟕𝟖𝟑𝒄𝒎
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 COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN
Is0hyetal method
• It is perhaps the most accurate method of
determining the average depth of
precipitation.
• This method consists of preparing isohyetal
map of the area using the rainfall reading at
various rain gauge stations, finding the areas
enclosed between successive isohyets (lines
connecting points of equal rainfall) by means of
a planimeter or graphing paper, and
multiplying these areas by the average
precipitation between the isohyets.
• The sum of these products divided by the total
area is the average precipitation over the basin.

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THANK YOU!