BASIC GEODESY

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BASIC GEODESY

• The branch of applied mathematics

that deals with:

• The measurement of the shape and

area of large tracts of land.

• The exact position of geographical

points.

• The curvature, shape, and dimensions

of the earth.

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 BASIC GEODESY

• The surface of the earth with its topography is far too irregular
to be a convenient basis for computing position.

• Surveyors reduce their observations to the gravitational

surface, which approximates mean sea level.

• This equipotential (ee-kwuh-puh-ten-shuhl) - (exhibiting

uniform potential at every point)) surface is known as the
geoid.
• It is approximately spherical, but because of the rotation of the
Earth, there is a slight bulge at the equator and flattening at
the poles.

• In addition, because of the variations in rock density that

impact the gravitational field, there are many local
irregularities.

• These factors make the geoid a complex surface.

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 DEFINITION: GEOID

• The geoid surface is irregular ( unlike

the reference ellipsoids often used to
approximate the shape of the physical
Earth ) but considerably smoother than
Earth's physical surface.

• While the latter has variations of +8,000

m (Mount Everest) and −11,000 m
(Mariana Trench), the total variation in
the geoid is less than 200 m (compared
to a perfect mathematical ellipsoid).

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 DEFINITION: ELLIPSOID

• In geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a

mathematically defined surface that
approximates the geoid, the truer figure
of the earth.

• Because of their relative simplicity,

reference ellipsoids are used as a
preferred surface on which geodedic
computations are performed and point
coordinates such as latitude, longitude,
and elevation are defined.

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1. Ocean
2. Ellipsoid
3. Local plumb (the direction of local gravity)
4. Continent
5. Geoid

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• In summary,
ellipsoids determine
shape and provide a
best fit of the geoid.

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GEODETIC DATUMS

• A geodetic datum defines the position and orientation

of the reference ellipsoid relative to the centre of the
earth, and the meridian used as zero longitude – the
prime meridian.

• The size and shape of the ellipsoid are traditionally

chosen to best fit the geoid in your area of interest.

• A local best fit will attempt to align the minor axis of the
ellipsoid with the earth’s rotational axis.

• It will also ensure that the zero longitude of the ellipsoid

coincides with a defined prime meridian.

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GEODETIC DATUMS
• The prime meridian is usually through
Greenwich, England, but historically,
countries used the meridian through
their national astronomic observatory.

• This best fit is centered on a position

on the earth’s surface within the area of
interest.
e.g. the Helmert Tower at Potsdam, near
Berlin, was used for the European Datum 1950
(ED 50)

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WHAT GEODESY MEANS TO DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

• Wells are drilled using a common grid

system.

• Legal aspects, lease boundaries

• Geological precision and targeting

• Anti-collision

• Well planning

• Sub-surface surveying

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PROJECTION SYSTEMS

• The earth is round (almost) but maps

are flat.

• A geodetic projection is a method of

rendering a portion of the earth’s
curved surface onto a flat map.

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• Think of the ways you
could encircle or contact
the earth’s surface with a
flat map (plane).

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Basic Geodesy

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Basic Geodesy

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Basic Geodesy

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Basic Geodesy

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Basic Geodesy

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Basic Geodesy

UTM CYLINDER

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Basic Geodesy

Note size
distortion

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DEFINITION: DATUM
• In surveying and geodesy, a datum is
a reference point or surface against
which position measurements are
made, and an associated model of the
shape of the earth for computing
positions.

• Horizontal datums are used for

describing a point on the earth's
surface, in latitude and longitude or
another coordinate system.

• Vertical datums are used to measure

elevations or underwater depths.

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 HORIZONTAL DATUMS
• The horizontal datum is the model used to measure
positions on the earth.

• A specific point on the earth can have substantially

different coordinates, depending on the datum used to
make the measurement.

• There are hundreds of locally-developed horizontal

datums around the world, usually referenced to some
convenient local reference point.

• Contemporary datums, based on increasingly accurate

measurements of the shape of the earth, are intended to
cover larger areas.

• The WGS84 datum, which is almost identical to the

NAD83 datum used in North America, is a common
standard datum.

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 VERTICAL DATUM

• A vertical datum is used for measuring the

elevations of points on the earth's surface.

• Vertical data are either tidal, based on sea

levels, gravimetric, based on a geoid, or
geodetic, based on the same ellipsoid models
of the earth used for computing horizontal
datums.

• In common usage, elevations are often cited in

height above sea level; this is a widely used
tidal datum.

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VERTICAL DATUM – CONT.
• Because ocean tides cause water levels to change
constantly, the sea level is generally taken to be some
average of the tide heights.

• Mean lower low water — the average of the lowest points

the tide reached on each day during a measuring period of
several years — is the datum used for measuring water
depths on some nautical charts, for example; this is called
the chart datum.

• While the use of sea-level as a datum is useful for

geologically recent topographic features, sea level has not
stayed constant throughout geological time, so is less
useful when measuring very long-term processes.

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VERTICAL DATUM – CONT.
• A geodetic vertical datum takes some specific zero
point, and computes elevations based on the
geodetic model being used, without further
reference to sea levels.

• Usually, the starting reference point is a tide

gauge, so at that point the geodetic and tidal
datums might match, but due to sea level
variations, the two scales may not match
elsewhere.

• One example of a geoid datum is NAVD88, used in

North America, which is referenced to a point in
Quebec, Canada.

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NORTH AMERICAN DATUM OF 1927
• The North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27) is a
datum based on the Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866.

• This Ellipsoid was created by way of manual

surveying of the entire continent.

• The geodetic "center" of NAD-27 is a base station

at Meades Ranch in Kansas.

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ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE 1861

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COMPARISONS BETWEEN NAD-27 AND NAD-83
• A point having a given latitude and longitude in NAD27
may be displaced on the order of many tens of meters from
another point having the identical latitude and longitude in
NAD83.

• So it is important to specify the datum along with the

coordinates.

• The North American Datum of 1927 is defined by the

latitude and longitude of an initial point (Meades Ranch in
Kansas), the direction of a line between this point and a
specified second point, and two dimensions that define the
spheroid.

• The North American Datum of 1983 is based on a newer

defined spheroid (GRS80); it is an Earth-centered datum
having no initial point or initial direction.

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COMPARISONS BETWEEN NAD-27 AND NAD-83

• As satellite and remote sensing technology both

improved and were made available for civilian
applications, it became obvious that the NAD-27's
approximations were not sufficiently accurate.

• The North American Datum of 1983 was created to

meet requirements for better accuracy and more
precision. It is based on the GRS80 ellipsoid; an
ellipsoid derived from satellite geodesy.

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Latitude and longitude are NOT unique

• The illustration on the next slide shows the Eiffel Tower in

Paris. Note that although the WGS 84 and ED 50
coordinates share the exact same latitude and longitude
values (48°51’29’’N, 2°17’40’’E), they do not represent the
same physical point on the earth’s surface (the yellow dot
representing the correct location).

• In this example the difference between the two coordinate

reference system positions is approximately 140 meters.

• This demonstrates that latitude and longitude are not

unique without the associated Reference System being
identified.

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ED50 : 48° 51’ 29”N, 002° 17’ 40”E

ers
et
M
140
~

WGS84 : 48° 51’ 29”N, 002° 17’ 40”E

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 POSITION DESCRIPTIONS IN SELECTED COORDINATE SYSTEMS
STAR IN THE HAND OF THE STATUE OF THE GODDESS OF LIBERTY ATOP
THE DOME OF THE STATE CAPITOL BUILDING
AUSTIN, TEXAS, USA

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VARIOUS ELLIPSOIDS

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 PROJECTED COORDINATE REFERENCE SYSTEMS
(PROVIDE “GRID” COORDINATES)

• A projected coordinate reference system is a flat, two-dimensional

representation of the Earth.

• It is a mathematical map of geographical coordinates onto a plane

surface, so that calculations of distance and area are more easily
performed.

• These projected Coordinate Reference Systems are usually expressed

in feet as Easting and Northing.

• A graticule (lattice of lines of equal latitude and longitude) cannot be

projected onto a plane without distortion.

• This is similar to removing an orange peel and trying to force it onto a

flat surface – it tears, bends and distorts. When one property is
preserved, others are distorted.

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 WHERE IS THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
GENERATED?
• For magnetic field generation to occur several
conditions must be met:

• There must be a conducting fluid

• There must be enough energy to cause the fluid to

move with sufficient speed and with the
appropriate flow pattern

• There must be a "seed" magnetic field

• All these conditions are met in the outer core.

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OUTER CORE

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 WHERE IS THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
GENERATED?
• Molten iron is a good conductor.

• There is sufficient energy to drive convection, and

the convective motion, coupled with the Earth's
rotation, produce the appropriate flow pattern.

• Even before the Earth's magnetic field was first

formed magnetic fields were present in the form of
the sun's magnetic field.

• Once the process is going, the existing field acts

as the seed field.

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 WHERE IS THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
GENERATED?
• As a stream of molten iron passes through the existing
magnetic field, an electric current is generated through a
process called magnetic induction.

• The newly created electric field will in turn create a

magnetic field.

• Given the right relationship between the magnetic field and

the fluid flow, the generated magnetic field can reinforces
the initial magnetic field.

• As long as there is sufficient fluid motion in the outer core,

the process will continue.

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 WHERE IS THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
GENERATED?
• The Earth's magnetic field is actually a composite
of several magnetic fields generated by a variety
of sources. These fields are superimposed on
each other and through inductive processes
interact with each other. The most important of
these geomagnetic sources are:

– a. the Earth's conducting, fluid outer core (~90%);

– b. magnetized rocks in Earth's crust
– c. fields generated outside Earth by electric currents
flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere
– d. electric currents flowing in the Earth's crust (usually
induced by varying external magnetic fields)
– e. ocean current effects

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 WHERE IS THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
GENERATED?
– The Earth's conducting, fluid outer core (~90%);

– Magnetized rocks in Earth's crust

– Fields generated outside Earth by electric currents

flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere

– Electric currents flowing in the Earth's crust (usually

induced by varying external magnetic fields)

– Ocean current effects

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LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES
• Local anomalies originating in the upper mantle, crust, or surface,
distort the WMM or IGRF predictions.

• Ferromagnetic ore deposits

• Geological features, particularly of volcanic origin, such as faults and

lava beds

• Topographical features such as ridges, trenches, seamounts, and

mountains; ground that has been hit by lightning and possibly
harboring fulgurites

• Cultural features such as power lines, pipes, rails and buildings;

personal items such as crampons, ice axe, stove, steel watch, hematite
ring or even your belt buckle, frequently induce an error of three to
four degrees.

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LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES

• Altitude (negligible to 2 degrees)    

• This factor is normally negligible.

• According to the IGRF, a 20,000 meter (66,000 foot)

climb even at a magnetically precarious location
as Resolute, 500 kilometers (300 miles) from the
north magnetic pole, would result in a two-degree
reduction in declination.

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LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES

• Secular change – 2 - 25 years/degree

• As convection currents churn in apparent chaos in the

Earth's core, all magnetic values change erratically over
the years.

• The north magnetic pole has wandered over 1000

kilometers (600 miles) since Sir John Ross first reached it
in 1831

• Its rate of displacement has been accelerating in recent

years and in mid-2002, it is moving about 39 kilometers (24
miles) per year, which is several times faster than the
average of 6 kilometers (4 miles) per year since 1831

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LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES

Diurnal change - negligible to 9 degrees

• The stream of ionized particles and electrons emanating from the Sun, known
as solar wind, distorts Earth's magnetic field.

• As it rotates, any location will be subject alternately to the lee side, then the
windward side of this stream of charged particles.

• This has the effect of moving the magnetic poles around an ellipse several
tens of kilometers in diameter, even during periods of steady solar wind
without gusts.

• The resulting diurnal change in declination is negligible at tropical and

temperate latitudes.

– For example, Ottawa is subject to plus or minus 0.1 degree of distortion.

– However; in Resolute, 500 kilometers (300 miles) from the north magnetic pole, the
diurnal change cycles through at least plus or minus nine degrees of declination
error. This error could conceivably be corrected, but both the time of day and the
date would have to be considered, as this effect also varies with seasons.

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LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES

Solar Activity - negligible to wild

• The solar wind varies throughout an 11-year sunspot cycle, which
itself varies from one cycle to the next.

• In periods of high solar magnetic activity, bursts of X-rays and charged

particles are projected chaotically into space, which creates gusts of
solar wind.

• These magnetic storms will interfere with radio and electric services,
and will produce dazzling spectacles of auroras.
– The varied colors are caused by oxygen and nitrogen being ionized, and
then recapturing electrons at altitudes ranging from 100 to 1000 kilometers
(60 to 600 miles).

• The term "geomagnetic storm" refers to the effect of a solar magnetic

storm on the Earth (geo means Earth).

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LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES
"Bermuda Triangle" type anomalies - very rare

• Legends of compasses spinning wildly in this area of the Atlantic, before

sinking a ship, or blowing up an airplane, may be related to huge pockets of
natural gas suddenly escaping from the ocean floor.

• As the gas bubbles up, it could induce a static charge or could ionize the gas,
which would create erratic magnetic fields.

• The gas would cause a ship to lose buoyancy, or a plane flying through a
rising pocket of natural gas could ignite it.

• The ionized gas may show as an eerie green glow at night.

• It could make people feel light headed and confused because the gas replaces
the air, but it would not have the mercaptans that gas companies add to gas to
give it its distinctive odor.

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MAGNETIC EQUATOR

• Imaginary line around the earth near the

equator, where the lines of force of the
earth's magnetic field are parallel with the
surface of the earth and where a magnetic
needle will consequently not dip.

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MAGNETIC EQUATOR (GREEN)

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MAGNETIC DECLINATION CHART - 1995

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