Lecture Week 1
Lecture Week 1
Lecture Week 1
Learning objectives:
• The student be able to determine the
propositional logic.
• The student be able to understand the logical
connectives.
• The student be able to construct the truth tables.
• The student will be able to validate the
arguments.
Proposition
A proposition (or a statement) is a
sentence that is true or false but not both.
Example 1:
1. “Two plus two equals four”
▫ – It is True
2. Do Tutorial 11 now.
3. Today is Wednesday.
4. x is a prime number.
Compound Proposition
• Three symbols that are used to build more
complicated logical expressions out of the
simplers ones.
not and or
q pq p
negation of q p and q p or q
(not q)
Compound Statement
• Create new (compound) propositions from
existing ones (elementary proposition)
1. Negation (not …)
2. Conjunction (… and …)
3. Disjunction (… or …)
4. Implication (if … then …)
5. Equivalence (… if and only if …)
Hierarchy Among Logical Connectives
Translating from English to Symbols: But
and Neither-Nor
• Write each of the following sentences
symbolically, letting h = “It is hot” and s = “It is
sunny.”
• It is not hot but it is sunny.
T F
F T
Truth Values - Conjunction
Definition
If p and q are statement variables, the conjunction of p
and q is “ p and q” , denoted . It is true when, and only
when, both p and q are true. If either p or q is false, or if
both are false, is false.
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Truth Values - Disjunction
Definition
If p and q are statement variables, the disjunction of p
and q is “ p or q” , denoted . It is true when either p is true,
or q is true, or both p and q are true; it is false only when
both p and q are false.
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Truth Values – Exclusive Or
Truth Table for Exclusive Or
If p and q are statement variables, the Exclusive Or means ‘p or q but not
both” which translates into symbols as . Also abbreviated as or .
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F
Logical Equivalence
Two statement forms are called logically equivalent if, and only if, they have
identical truth values for each possible substitution of statements variables.
The logical equivalence of statement forms P and Q is denoted by writing
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T
Example 2:
Show that the statement forms and are not logically equivalent
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T
De Morgan’s Law
De Morgan’s Laws
The negation of an and statement is
logically equivalent to the or statement
in which each component is negated.
p q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
Applying De Morgan’s Laws
• Write negations for each of the following
statements:
a. John is 6 feet tall and he weighs at least 200
pounds.
b. The bus was late or Tom’s watch was slow.
Solution:
a. John is not 6 feet tall or he weighs less than
200 pounds.
b. The bus was not late and Tom’s watch was not
slow.
Types of Compound Propositions
Tautology • Always true!
• Neither a tautology
Contingency
nor a contradiction
Example 3:
Show that the statement forms is a tautology and the statement form is a
contradiction
T F T F
F T T F
T T T T F F
F T F F F F
Logical Equivalences
Commutative Law
Associative Laws
Distributive Laws
Identity Laws
Negation Laws
Double Negative Law
Idempotent Laws
Universal bound laws
De Morgan’s Laws
Absorption Laws
Negations of t and c:
Conditional Statements
Definition
If p and q are statement variables, the conditional of q by p is
“If p then q” or “p implies q” and is denoted by .
• It is false when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true.
• We call p the hypothesis (or antecedent) of the
conditional and q the conclusion (or consequent)
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Negation of Conditional Statements
Contrapositive of Conditional Statements
Definition
The contrapositive of a conditional statement of the form “If
p then q” is
If then
Or symbolically,
The contrapositive of is
Converse and Inverse of Conditional Statements
Definition
Suppose a conditional statement of the form “If p then q” is
given.
1. The converse is “ If q then p”
2. The inverse is “ If then .”
Or symbolically,
The converse of is ,
And,
The inverse of is
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example 4:
Given that the truth values for propositions P, Q and R are T, F and T respectively.
Determine the truth values of the following compound propositions:
(a) P Q ~ R
T F ~ T T F F F F F
(b) ( P Q ) (Q R )
(T F ) ( F T ) F T F
T T F T T T T
Only If Statements
Definition
If p and q are statements,
p only if q means “if not q then not p”
Or equivalently,
John will break the world’s record for the mile run only if he
runs the mile in under four minutes.
• If John does not run the mile in under four minutes, then he will not break
the world’s record.
• If John breaks the world’s record, then he will have run the mile in under
four minutes.
Something to ponder…
p: It is a cat.
q: It is an animal.
Being an animal is a sufficient condition for being a cat. NO
~p “p only if q”