JUBAIL INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

TRAINING CENTER

mmz 2003
Ultrasonic Testing
Find and explain an acceptance criterion of UT by giving
few examples
Example of acceptance criteria:
ASME V sec VIII
AWS D1.1

HOME WORK 2
 Principles of Ultrasonic
• This chapter reviews the fundamental
concepts and various display
presentations that allow the ultrasonic
technician to investigate and understand
the test material.
• The ultrasonic testing techniques
commonly applied in current industrial
settings.
Five Basic\Elements of Ultrasonic

• The test is based on a high frequency

mechanical vibrations (sound wave) that
is made to pass through a test object.
• Ultrasound is reflected by the boundary
between dissimilar materials Sound reflects
from water and solid boundary interface or a
boundary between solid and gas. Voids or
tracks in material form reflective interfaces.
• The mechanical vibrations used for
nondestructive testing are sound waves at
a relatively high frequency or pitch.
Vibrations with frequencies above our
ability to hear them are called ultrasonic.
 Five basic elements

1. Source of energy
2. Probing medium
3. Modifier
4. Sensitive detector
5. Display
 The first element is the source of
energy that creates the ultrasonic
waves.
 Ultrasonic waves are created using
transducers that convert electrical
pulses into short bursts or pulses of
mechanical vibration
• Piezoelectricity is a unique material
characteristic that converts electrical
pulses into ultrasonic pulses, and vice
versa.
• Piezoelectric materials are important
components of ultrasonic transducers.
• The ultrasonic wave, representing the
second element of the test method, is
referred to as the probing medium.
• It is used to penetrate test object in
search of clues to the presence of
discontinuities or other conditions.
• The third element of ultrasonic testing is some
material feature that modifies ultrasonic
waves as they pass through the test object.
• Since ultrasonic waves are mechanical, any
changes in the mechanical continuity of a test
object alters the progress of probing sound
waves.
• The fourth element of is a sensitive
detector capable of registering changes
experienced by the probing medium.
Such changes can involve wave
redirection or unexpected alteration to
wave strength.
• In ultrasonic testing, a transducer is
operated as a receiver of ultrasonic pulses
and scanned over the external surface of
test objects, identifying changes in sound
beam direction and pulse strength.
• The fifth element of ultrasonic testing is the
readout display. Basic ultrasonic testing
instruments display the pulses (amplitude)
and time of arrival) detected by the
receiving transducer.
Ultrasonic Instrumentation

 The ultrasonic testing instrument has

three basic functions.

 1. is to produce and electrical pulses

that is used to generate a stress wave
in the transducer.
• 2. is to amplify the weak echo signals received
from within the test object.

• 3. is to display the returned information in a

meaningful way.
 PULSER

• When triggered by the clock circuit,

most pulsers emit sharp,
unidirectional, spiked pulses that is
sent through the coaxial cable to the
transducer.
• In newer, digitized instruments, with highly
efficient transducers and more powerful
amplifier, the excitation voltage may be 200 to
300 V.
• The pulser may be adjustable to
adapt the instrument to different
testing conditions. Lower voltage
pulses tend to be shorter, yielding
better resolution to signals from
closely spaced reflectors
• Higher voltages create stronger acoustic
pulses that can be penetrate to greater
depths in highly attenuative materials.
• Pulses height (input energy) and duration
are adjustable.
• Conventional units can be found that
generate pulses in the range from 100 V to
1000 V.
• The crisp, short duration (single cycle)
pulses is used in cases where high
resolution of small reflectors is important.
• The longest pulses is used in cases where
penetration is particularly difficult in highly
attenuative materials.
• The repetition rate at which the pulser is
excited is also variable. The pulse repetition
rate at directly affects the speed at which
materials can be tested, particularly in
automatic systems
• The degree of an object’s test coverage can
be reduced if the transducer is scanned over a
surface at a high speed while the pulse
repetition rate is relatively low.
• The output pulse is converted to an electric
wave within the transducer. If the
transducer is coupled to a test object
through a continuous sound path, the wave
progresses into the test object.
• Depending on the test object’s acoustic
properties (velocity, attenuation and
geometry), the stress wave progresses in to
the material and is reflected at discrete
changes in material properties.
• Depending on reflector orientation and
makeup, only part of the stress wave will
find its way back to the transducer. After
the detected stress wave is reconverted
into an electrical signal by the transducer,
the magnitude of the pulse will be reduced
from the electrical signal used to launch the
 Amplifier

• The amplifier of an ultrasonic testing

instrument boosts the signal strength of the
received pulses to a level that can be easily
displayed on the instrument’s screen.
•  The increase in incoming signal strength
can be expressed as a simple linear
relationship (relative increase expressed in
percentages) or in accordance with a
logarithmic relationship (expressed in terms
of decibels).
• The decibel representation have become
most common in ultrasonic testing.
Amplifiers can be adjusted to accept either
a broad range of signal frequencies or on
selected narrow range of frequencies
• It serves to filter the echo signals with the
purpose of closely amplifying the exact shape
of the echo suing the broadband setting, or
selective keying in on an individual frequency.
• The primary purpose of the amplifier
component is to increase received signal
strength to meet the requirements of the
sweep display unit.
• Excessively noisy signals can be filtered
and clipped by use of controls that act on
the amplifier circuit to clean up their
appearances.
• Filtering is used to smooth the jagged
appearance of signals while the reject control
discriminates against lower strength signals.
 A-scan Display

 The most common display is called an A-scan

display, the vertical axis represents signal
strength. The horizontal axis represents time
and displays pulses signal amplitude
variations with increasing time from a
specific reference point
• The reference point at the left side of the
display screen is usually the moment when
the transducer is first excited with an electric
pulse, sometimes called the initial pulses or
main bang.
• The left edge of the pulse corresponding to
the instant electrical pulse excited the
transducer, while the remainder of the pulse
is caused by the ring-down of the transducer.
(Figure 6.4)
• The relative height of the received pulse is a
measure of the echo stress wave strength.
• The horizontal position of the pulse’s left
edge is the time the echo pulse arrived at the
transducer. When the signal is displayed, it is
correctly called the video signal.
• The bottom horizontal line is often referred
to as the horizontal base line.
 B-scan
 The B-scan displays X-positional information
in one direction, and the time history of the
horizontal scale of the A-scan in the other.
 The result represents a cross-sectional slice of
the reflectors associated with the test object.
• Since internal reflectors reduce the strength
of any ongoing ultrasonic waves, a shadow of
the internal reflector is often seen as a loss of
signal in images of any subsequent reflecting
surfaces
• A series of B scans taken with vertical
orientations can be used to build up
three-dimensional image. In practical
applications, a particular region within a test
object is usually of interests.
• Often, a single slice is sufficient to gather the
information for determining a reflector’s
location, general size and shape.
 C Scan

• C scan will give us the Top view.

• in C Scan the probe will be moved on the
area of interest, by using an automatic
mechanical positioning issues.
• The received signals are converted to
variations in color density.
• This scan result can give a clear idea about the
shape of discontinuity.
• This will be more easy to interpret the result.
 Computerized Systems

• The device used to display the various

scan mode can be based on analog or
digital technologies.

• Older instruments are purely analog and

have traditionally been equipped with a
cathode ray tube to display A-scan
• Digital devices transform the analog signal to
its digital equivalent using an analog–to-digital
converter circuit.
•
• Because of their small size, digital systems
can be equipped with auxiliary features,
such a s automatic calibration, data storage
and external communication, which
enhance their functionality well beyond that
of analog systems
• All parts of an ultrasonic test system – the
instrument, the coupling agent and even the
relatively simple coaxial cable are important
in producing a comprehensive inspection of
the test object.
• Transducers form the core of all
nondestructive ultrasonic testing procedures.

• Whether an object can be tested or not

depends on the appropriate acoustic
properties of the transducer.

• The choice of the correct transducer is

decisive for the quality and reliability of test
results.
• A transducer is specified for a test based on
its ability to produce an efficient energy
which can find the response form the known
reflectors.
• A transducer’s frequency is determined by
the thickness of the piezoelectric element
(crystal).
• The thinner the crystal, the higher the
sensitivity and resolution, but less ability to
penetrate test objects to great depths.
• A transducer is chosen to enhance the
sensitivity and the resolution of the system,
or to provide for greater ability to penetrate
coarse grained materials or test objects of
great depths
 To gain good penetrating ability, a
transducer in the lower frequency range
(less than 5MHz) is used.
 The lower frequency ranges produce longer
wave lengths that counter the natural
attenuation of the test material.
 On the other hand, higher sensitivity to
smaller reflectors and better resolution is
achieved with higher frequencies (5 MHz
and higher).
 Transducer Damping

• Transducer damping contributes greatly to

its characteristic ability of improved
penetration or improved sensitivity and
resolution.
• In applications where good resolution is of
primary importance, it is common to select
a highly dampened transducer.
• A high degree of damping will help to
shorten interface ring-down or recovery
time and allows the system to resolve
closely positioned reflectors
• Limiting the duration or decreasing the
amplitude of vibrations, as when damping
a transducer element.

damping capacity: Measurement of the

ability of a material to absorb mechanical
energy.
• transducer damping: a material (damping
element, damping material) bonded to the
back of the piezoelectric element of a
transducer to limit the duration of vibration.
• ultrasonic damping: Decrease or decay of
ultrasonic wave amplitude with respect to
time or distance.

damping resistor, an electronic device as

part of UT equipment. This device can be a
network of fixed resistor values or a variable
potentiometer (50 ....2000 Ohm).
High Penetration: Low Resolution
Transducers
• Low resolution transducers are intended to
provide excellent sensitivity in situations
where distances resolution Is not primary
importance.
• Typically, these transducer will have longer
waveform duration and a relatively narrow
bandwidth.
 Medium Penetration: Help
Resolution Transducers
• High resolution transducers are
manufactured to produce the excitation
pulse and interface echo recovery time,
while maintaining good sensitivity at the
transducer center frequency.
 Broadband Transducer
• Broadband transducers are transducers that
provide heavily damped broadband
performance.
• They are the best choice in many
applications where good coaxial or distance
resolution is necessary.

• They also serve in test s that require an

improved signal-to-noise ration in coarse
grained, attenuating materials.
• Transducer manufacturers have long
acknowledged that transducers, even those
manufactured by the same makers to be the
same size, shape and frequency, can be
highly individual.

• There is a need for carefully testing and

documenting these individual characteristics
of ultrasonic transducers.
• Manufacturers typically provide
documentation of the transducer’s actual
radio frequency waveform and frequency
spectrum. Additionally, measurements of
peak and center frequency, upper and
lower (-6 dB) frequencies, bandwidth and
waveform duration are made according to
the American Society for Testing and
Materials standard ASTM E-1065
 Piezoelectric Materials

• The sound beam characteristics of a

transducer applied under normal testing
conditions are generally derived from the
diameter and frequency of the
piezoelectric element
• while the technician knows these features
of a given transducer, the details
regarding the physical and acoustic
properties of the piezoelectric material
used to manufacture the actual crystal
within the transducer may be unknown
 The knowledge is important, the material
that the crystal is made from determines
the efficiency of the overall piezoelectric
process, and has an important effect on the
overall quality of the ultrasonic test.
• Quartz, lithium sulfate and barium titanate
are almost never used today. Instead, new
powerful piezoelectric material is available

• Depending on the application, one material

may be more advantageous because of
physical or economic reasons, or simply
because of less complicated manufacturing
process.
• Lead zirconate titanate is the most

familiar piezoelectric material used to

generate ultrasound. Lead titanate and

lead metaniobate are two of today’s more

frequently used ceramic piezoelectric

materials.
• Manufacturers are also showing rapid
progress in their ability to produce composite
piezoelectric elements that produce improved
signal-to-noise ratios.
 Acoustic Coupling

• Ultrasonic waves requires an intermediate

medium to transfer the transducer’s
mechanical motion to the test object. If a gas
such as air, is trapped between the transducer
and the test object, virtually all the sound
energy is reflected
• A liquid couplant is used as a transition
medium between the two solid bodies to
allow for ease of transducer movement and to
display any air between the transducer and
the test object.
• In contact testing,--------------------------------.
• Successful acoustic wave transfer is best
performed when a thin layer of couplant is
applied between the transducer and the test
object.
• Couplant ensures effective acoustic energy
transfer while lubricating the sliding surfaces
between the transducer and the test object.
• Many angle beam transducer-wedge
combinations permit the transducer to be
attached to the wedge small screws or a
spring-like snap ring.
• The wedge can be changed to allow the
use of other wedge angles and permits
combinations of various frequency
transducers and angles at minimum cost.
• When this type of transducer-wedge
combination is used, there is also a need
to have couplant between the face of the
transducer and the wedge. This couplant
should be of high viscosity and of a type
that does not rapidly evaporate or dry
out
• To determine if the transducer is fully
coupled to the wedge, the technician
should invert the probe, wet the scanning
surface then look up the sound path
toward the face of the transducer.
• If the crystal face is completely black,

transducer is properly coupled, if there are

air gaps in the couplant, the crystal face will

appear silver-colored or will have areas that

are silver-colored. This indicates that there

are gaps in the couplant

 Air Coupling

• without the use of any liquid coming in

contact with the test object, dry coupling
has been achieved with special synthetic
rubber cover materials placed between
the transducer and the test object.
• This allows spot tests of objects that are

subject to chemical contamination by any

form of liquid.
• Air coupled transducers can be
configured to work in though
transmission
• It is usually in 200 to 400 KHz
frequency range,
 Air coupled transducers include the following:

• Honeycombs
• Solar panels
• Foam sandwich panels
• Cork coated honeycombs
• Aircraft brake disks
• Timber and wood products
• It is the combination of specially designed

transducers with the proper driver/receiver

instrumentation that has been made air

coupled ultrasonic testing a valuable new

tool for industrial ultrasonic testing.

• Air coupled ultrasonic scanning is increasingly
becoming the method of choice for those
parts where water and other couplants are
not practical.
 Immersion Coupling
• The transducer is somewhat removed from
the test object’s surface, ensuring continuity
of the sound entering the test object by use of
intervening water path.
• The test object can be immersed within a tank
of water, or the water can be introduced along
a column between the transducer and the test
object surface.
• Immersion coupling is most often used in
automatic scanning applications because of its
consistent coupling and made the absence of
transducer surface wear.
• Immersion systems are widely used in the
material manufacturing industries for offline
tests of billets, bars and plates.
 They are also used
• for fabricated parts, such as jet engine turbine
blades.
• on a smaller scale for laboratory tests and for
research and development.
 Squirter Systems
• The system is most often used with
transducers aiming their pulsed or
continuous wave beams through
water columns that carry the beams to
the surface of the test object.
• Squirter systems are used to test
composite materials in aerospace
manufacturing. These systems can be
very large and complex. Systems
greater than 40 ft long are quite
common, although much smaller
systems are also manufactured.
 BASE MATERIAL TESTING
• Since the sound beam travels through
thickness, most test objects can be tested
from one side.

• The transducer should be moved across the

surface. The amount of overlap is usually
defined in the governing code or
specification.
• It is common to perform straight beam
test using a grid pattern of scanning.

• If a discontinuity is found, the test is

concentrated in that area until the full
area of the discontinuity has been
outlined and marked on the surface of
the test object.
• Angle beam test on plate, full test will
require scans in four directions to
detect discontinuities that might not
be aligned both parallel and
perpendicular to the rolling direction.
• Scanning in opposite directions in both the axial
and transverse directions will detect skewed
discontinuities that might not be oriented
perpendicular to the sound beam in one
direction
• Pipe is performed in a similar manner, with two
scans around the circumference in opposite
directions and in two opposing directions
parallel to the axis of the pipe.
• On the circumferential scans, a
wedge specifically contoured to
match the pipe’s outer diameter is
usually required.
 Weld Testing
• Straight beam of welds can only be perform
on welds:-
– that have had the weld reinforcement ground
flush
– or from the back side of tee or corner welds,
– and then only if permitted by the governing
code or specification
 Angle Beam Testing

• This can be performed on

– Full penetration plate butt weld
– Corner,
– Tee and
– Pipe welds
• Many Codes and specifications require base
metal scanning beyond Toe.
• The available distance from the weld should
be considered before selecting probe angle
and skip distance.
Single V Butt Weld
• Scanning should be performed from both side
of weld plate.
Double V Butt weld
• Scanning should be performed from both side
of weld plate.
• The both faces of the weld is not associated
with the root.
 Corner Joint

Face C
 T Joint

Face C
• From the face C straight beam transducer
has to be used to find laminar tears and to
find the side fall fusion.
• In all reports the scanning face has to be
mentioned.
• Once the scanning face has been selected its
necessary to find the area of test coverage.
• Normally the test coverage will be specified in
the procedure.
• Normally the selection will depend upon
the probe angle and material thickness.
• If the test procedure is not mentioning
anything special at least the half and full
skip (leg ) has to selected.
• If the base material is supposed to be
scanned the distance must be added to
the scanning area.
• Figure: 6.15
• If the governing procedure is asking for
the base metal scanning, the distance
also has be added to the scanning area.
• A 70° probe will require a longer sound
path than a 45°or 60° probe.
• To prepare the surface for scanning all
impurities like loose scale, rust or foreign
material should be removed from the
surface.
• To remove spatter we can use the chisel to
clean the surface.
• Once we finish the surface the object can be
applied with couplant.
• To find the axial and transversely oriented
discontinuities the probe has to be moved in
two directions.
• The probe has to be scanned on both side of
the weld.
• The probe scanned on the surface with a
minimum overlap on the previous scan.
• If the governing procedure is not specified the
overlap can be between 20 to 50%.
• As probe is moved to and fro it should be
oscillated to find the discontinuities which is
not exactly located at 90°.
• If oscillation is not specified normally a range
of 15° to 20° is used.
• These guidelines should be done while the
technician is watching the screen, because all
the information regarding the discontinuity
comes only in the screen.
• The specimen has to be scanned on a regular
speed called as scanning speed,
• The common scanning speed prescribed on
the most specifications is 6” per second
• The purpose of this instruction is to ensure
that any discontinuity echo which is returning
should have the time to return to the
transducer before its moving from the place.
• The final step before performing the job is to
mark the reference points, so that the
discontinuity position can be identified.
• Most common method is X-Y coordinate
system.
• X represents the distance across the weld
• Y represents the length along the weld
• The zero point on a weld plate is the centre of
the weld
• The zero point on a tee weld or corner weld
is the backside of the weld.

• It is better to mark Y-0 on weld plate for easy

measurements.
 X+

X=0

Y=0
X-
• When sizing the discontinuity we have to refer
the governing documents.

• The common practice is 6dB drop method.

• Many discontinuities are irregular in shape,
the person should continue the sizing past
the point at which the amplitude become
50%.

• The depth of discontinuity can be found by

using the trigonometric function based on
the beam path or surface distance.
• New age machines can give the readings
directly by pushing the button.
• Regardless of depth calculated, the calculation
is based on the normal angle and most codes
allow a change of +/-2°.