Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings

By: Majid Farooq

Dated: 05th Oct,2009
Bearings
 Definition
 Bearing refers to any kind of support, which is in direct
contact with a moving machine part.
 Bearings are designed to minimize friction, wear and
power loses. Every kind of machine uses bearings of
some kind.
 Main Types
 Plain Bearings
 Anti-friction Bearings
Bearing Types

 Bearings can also be classified on the basis of

function:

 Journal Bearing

 Thrust Bearing

 Guide Bearing
Plain Bearings

 Plain bearing is a simple cylinder, whole or in

pieces, made to fit around the journal of a shaft.
Lubricant film separates the bearing surface from
the journal.
 Plain bearings are usually made of relatively soft
material and therefore it does not scratch the
shaft.
 Plain bearings are used mainly to support low
speed shafts carrying heavy loads.
Advantages of Plain Bearings

 Small size
 Low cost
 Quiet operation
 Easy installation
 Good resistance to contaminants
 Long self life without deterioration
Plain Bearings Materials

 Bronze
 Babbitt metal (Tin Alloy)
 Cast iron
 Graphite Teflon
 Plastic
 Aluminum alloys
Plain Bearing Lubrication
 Bearings cannot be discussed without considering
lubrication. Lubricant film separates the shaft journal
from bearing and thus reduces friction and prevents the
shaft and the bearing from overheating.
 When the shaft begins to rotate, a wedge of oil is forced
under the journal, lifts it away from the bearings and thus
Full-film lubrication is achieved.
 Both Oil and grease can be used as a lubricant. However
grease is used where the shaft rotates at a very slow
rpm.
Anti-friction Bearings

Antifriction bearings provide rolling contact rather

then sliding contact therefore the total effective
contact area is much less in antifriction bearings as
compared to plain bearings. Starting friction of
antifriction bearings is therefore considerably less
than in plain or sleeve bearings.
Construction

 Outer race

 Inner race

 Rolling elements

 Retainer
Advantages

 Less power demand because of low starting

friction
 Less maintenance and lubrication is required.
 Both radial and axial loads can be carried by
certain types.
 Higher speed operation
 Ability to perform under adverse condition.
Types of Anti- friction Bearings

 Ball Bearings
 Single Row Radial Ball Bearing.

 Single Row Angular Contact Ball Bearing.

 Double Row Angular Contact Ball Bearing.

 Ball Thrust Bearing.

Types of anti- friction Bearings

 Roller Bearings.
 Cylinder Roller Bearing
 Barrel or Spherical Roller Bearing.
 Tapered Roller Bearing
 Needle Roller Bearing
 Roller Thrust Bearing
Bearing Basics
 Bearings permit smooth low-friction rotary or linear movement between
two surfaces. Bearings employ either a sliding or rolling action. In both
cases, there is a strong attempt to provide enough lubrication to keep
the bearing surfaces separated by a film of oil or other lubricant. The
absence of physical contact provides most bearings with long service
lives.

Bearings are evaluated on the basis of;

 How much load they can carry,

 At what speeds they can carry this load,

 And how long they will serve under the specified conditions.

 Friction, start-up torques or forces, ability to withstand impact or harsh

environments, rigidity, size, cost, and complexity also are important
design considerations.
Design Considerations:

1.Bearing Loads
2.Bearing Deflection
3.Bearing Friction
4.Bearing Size
5.Bearing Wear
6.Bearing Heat
7.Bearing Cost
Design Considerations: contd….
1. Bearing Loads
 Load and operating speed affect bearings. Service life is determined statistically from
tests of numerous samples.
 Hydrodynamic and hydrostatic bearings, however, operate with infinite service life
below some critical value of load and speed. With self-acting, oil-lubricated
(hydrodynamic) sleeve bearings, load capacity increases linearly with speed since
rotation builds the supporting lubricating film.
 For extremely pressurized (hydrostatic) sleeve bearings, there is a particular load
capacity for infinite life, and this capacity is essentially unaffected by speed -- although
at times there may be some hydrodynamic or speed-dependent contribution to load
capacity.
 As a result of these interactions, rolling-element bearings are less sensitive than plain
bearings to load variations. And because they do not rely on velocity effects to maintain
a fluid film, they are well suited to supporting heavy load at low speeds. Fluid-film
bearings tend to be a better choice if load increases with an increase in speed or if the
load is dynamic.
 Both rolling-element and plain bearings can be vulnerable to severe impact loads. Often
a case is presented that rolling-element bearings are more vulnerable because of their
line or point contact and resulting high contact stress. The fluid film in plain bearings is
said to provide a better "cushion" for impact. More realistically, however, resistance to
impact for both types depends upon reserve capacity. Either type of bering can be
designed to sustain high impact.
Design Considerations: contd….
2. Bearing Deflection
 Deflection at the bearing -- or at the load point in the
bearing-shaft system -- is often important, especially in
machine tools and precision instruments. Deflection of
overhung loads can be particularly critical since the
stiffness at the loading point is sometimes less than 10%
of the basic bearing stiffness.
 Bearings which support rotating shafts can be classified
into four basic categories:
 Rolling contact – load supported by balls or rollers.
 Hydrostatic – load supported by high pressure fluid.
 Hydrodynamic – load supported by a lubricant film.
 Magnetic – load supported by magnetic fields.
Design Considerations: contd….
3. Bearing Friction
 Torque required to put a bearing into motion from rest is usually higher
than that required to keep the bearing running once it starts. Starting
friction, therefore, has an important influence on the power required in
a bearing drive system.
 Externally pressurized bearings have very low starting torque. Roller
bearings have a low starting torque and underpressurized sleeve (fluid-
film) bearings have substantially higher starting torque. The coefficient
of friction at start-up for self-lubricated bearings is highly variable. It
may range from 0.04 to 0.16.
 At running speed, the externally pressurized bearing runs with low
friction.
 Running friction for a rolling-element bearing is lower than its starting
friction. If torque characteristics are critical to a bearing design, starting
and running frictional characteristics should be measured
experimentally.
 When starting load is light and load increases gradually with speed, the
conventional hydrodynamic sleeve bearing usually is preferred.
Design Considerations: contd….
4. Bearing Size
 Bearings that require a separate pressurized lubrication

system need more space than self-lubricating types. The

relative space required at the actual load-support point is
not clear because a pressurized bearing can be more
compact than self-contained bearings at the load-support
point.
 For self-contained bearings, the sleeve bearing requires

less radial space than a rolling-element bearing;

however, the sleeve bearing needs slightly more axial
space. Needle bearings require about as much space as
journal bearings.
Design Considerations: contd….
5. Bearing Wear
 Wear of plain bearings is influenced by the state of lubrication and,
conversely, wear characteristics influence the various lubrication
states.
 Hydrostatic bearings do not wear when operating properly because the
bearing surfaces are separated by a film of oil.
 Hydrodynamic bearings wear very slowly. Wear occurs during start-up
and slowdown when speed is too low to produce sufficient fluid
pressure to support the bearing surfaces on a lubricant film. If hard
debris imbeds in a babbitt or plastic bearing and protrudes above the
bearing surface, the journal can wear seriously during start-up.
 In severe and catastrophic journal wear -- known as wire wooling --
the journal surface is machined by hard scabs of wear debris that pack
into the babbitt surface. In this failure the journals are deeply grooved
and can no longer generate a hydrodynamic film.
Design Considerations: contd….

6.Bearing Heat
Heat is generated either by shearing of the oil film
or by rubbing contact. In a hydrostatic or
hydrodynamic bearing, heat generation at
running speeds is the result of oil shear, and the
amount of temperature rise can be estimated if oil
viscosity and shear rates are known. Bearing
temperature can be regulated by controlling the
oil flow through the bearing or by using external
cooling.
Design Considerations: contd….
8.Bearing Cost
 Bearing Hardware costs

 Bearing Design costs

 Shop costs

 Bearing Maintenance costs

 Bearing Replacement costs

 Cost of bearing failure

Lubrication Systems
1. Manual Lubrication
Manual lubrication requires the use of a portable pump, which is not part of the
machine, and an oil cup or grease fitting. Tubing or drilled passages carry the
lubricant from the fittings to the friction points. Lubricant is applied by
connecting the pump outlet to the fitting and injecting a specified amount of
lubricant.

2. Self-lubrication
In this process, the material is inherently self-lubricating or the mechanism
does the work of delivering lubricant to critical points. Examples of the latter
are oil splash systems, oil slingers, and oil baths.

3. Centralized Lubrication Systems

Centralized lubricating systems lubricate all the friction points from a single
pump source. The pump can be manual, mechanical, or motor operated.
Positive pressure controls the flow rate and also provides a means of
indicating correct operation or malfunction. Also, these systems can shut down
a machine if required.
Hydrodynamic Bearings
Journal bearing design is complex.
It involves optimizing clearances,
bearing length, minimum film
lubricant, viscosity, flow rate, and
inlet slots. Design equations are
available, but their solution is time
consuming unless done on a
computer. Fortunately, these
equations have been reduced to
chart form, and a wide variety of
design problems can be solved
with various charts in the literature.
Hydrodynamic Bearings contd….
 Effective viscosity for the bearing should be obtained
from the mean oil operating temperature. Using mineral
oil-based lubricants, this temperature typically ranges
from 120 to 180°F, but should be less than 250°F. As an
approximation, an oil temperature rise of 20°F above the
inlet can be assumed.
 Oil flow rates are determined from the oil temperature
rise and power loss. When the required oil flow is
determined, an estimate should be made as to whether
the required amount of oil is drawn through the clearance
space in the bearing.
Hydrodynamic Bearings contd….
 Minimum film thickness is often shown on design charts and is found
from (1 - ec) where e = eccentricity ratio and c = bearing clearance.
However, an acceptable minimum value is not shown because it
depends on factors such as surface roughness and type of loading.
There is no substitute for minimum film values that have proven
successful in similar applications.

 High pressures and temperatures generated in a hydrodynamic film

should be considered when selecting bearing materials. Bearings
subjected to cyclic stresses can fail by fatigue.

 The bearing material should also be compatible with the journal

material so when metal-to-metal contact occurs at starting and
stopping, minimal surface damage occurs.
Hydrodynamic Bearings contd….
 Hydrodynamic instability occurs when a journal does not return to its
established equilibrium position or attitude when momentarily
displaced. Shocks or vibrations produce an instability in which the
journal whirls around the bearing axis at less than one-half journal
speed. This instability is known as half-speed whirl and occurs in lightly
loaded, high-speed bearings. The problem also occurs in vertical-shaft
journal bearings where there is essentially no radial load on the
bearing. The extent of shaft whirl ranges from unnoticed to a violent
reaction that destroys the bearing.

 When the bearing speed, journal diameter, and load are fixed,
stability can be increased by reducing bearing length or lubricant
viscosity. If whirl cannot be avoided, a lobed bearing may alleviate the
situation. A tiltpad bearing is the most stable radial bearing
configuration, but it is costly.
Hydrodynamic Bearings contd….

Bearing stiffness and damping capacity are important

considerations when making machine vibration and
critical shaft speed analyses. Stiffness is the reciprocal of
the journal displacement with applied load. Damping is
the force resisting journal radial motion.

Bearing stiffness can be considered a displacement-

force relation. It varies with displacement of the journal,
and can be estimated by determining eccentricity ratios
for a series of applied loads and calculating the slope of
the resulting displacement load curve.
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings
Thrust bearing design is as complicated as the design of a journal
bearing. Complete analysis requires consideration of heat generation, oil
flow, bearing material, load capacity, and stiffness.

The six types of thrust bearing are;

 Flat Land
 Step
 Taper
 Tilting Pad
 Spring Supported
 Hydrostatic

The first five are called hydrodynamic bearings because they

generate oil pressure when a thrust face on a rotating shaft
pumps oil by shear into a zone of reduced downstream
clearance and increased outflow resistance.
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings contd….
Flat-land:
Bearings are the simplest to fabricate and the least costly. Thus, they are a
first choice for simple positioning of a rotor and for light loads in machinery
such as electric motors, appliances, pumps, and crankshafts.
However, flat-land bearings carry less load than the others because flat
parallel planes do not directly provide the required pumping action. Instead,
their action depends on thermal expansion and warping of the bearing
material induced by heating from passing oil. The slight oil wedge shape then
gives a load rating of about 10 to 20% of that expected with other bearing
types.

Step:
Bearings also have a relatively simple design. With a coined or etched step,
they lend themselves to mass production in small sizes in the form of bearings
and thrust washers. Step height for about the minimum film thickness is
commonly about 0.001 in. Circumferential length of the raised area beyond a
step is ideally 28% of the total bearing segment.
Step-thrust bearings are well suited for low-viscosity fluids such as water,
gasoline, and solvents. Minimum film thickness in these applications is so
small that features such as pivots and tapers are impractical.
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings contd….
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings contd….
Tapered-Land:
bearings are reliable, compact designs for a large variety of mid to large-size
high-speed machines such as steam and gas turbines, compressors, and
pumps. As with step bearings, taper height normally should be about equal to
the minimum film thickness. To minimize wear during starting and stopping,
and at low speeds, a flat land is commonly machined at the trailing edge. Load
capacity is highest when the land length ranges from 15 to 30% of
circumferential length of each bearing segment.
Because the operation of these bearings is sensitive to load, speed, and
lubricant, they are typically designed to meet narrow operating conditions in
specific machines.

Tilting-Pad
Thrust bearings are used increasingly in marine drives, turbines, compressors,
and pumps over much the same range of applications as tapered-land
designs. They commonly have a central supporting pivot, and each of the six
to 10 or more bearing segments adjusts freely to form a nearly optimum oil
wedge even with widely varying loads, speeds, lubricants, and rotation in both
directions. Leveling linkages to equalize load carried by individual bearing
pads provide a further advantage over tapered-land designs by
accommodating some misalignment.
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings contd….
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings contd….
Hydrodynamic Thrust Bearings contd….
 Typical Oil Flow and Cooling Path
Comparison of Hydrostatic & Hydrodynamic Bearings:
 Hydrostatic bearings and hydrodynamic bearings are
fluid film bearings that rely on a film of oil or air to create
a clearance between the moving and stationary
elements.
 They are different than basic bearings, machine
components that reduce friction between supports in
order to move loads.
 Typically, hydrostatic bearings and hydrodynamic
bearings are used whenever one machine part comes in
contact with another.
 Without bearings, machine parts would need to be
constantly replaced from the wear of friction. The two
primary types of bearings are antifriction bearings such
as roller bearings and ball bearings, and plain bearings
such as journal bearings and trust bearings.
Comparison of Hydrostatic & Hydrodynamic Bearings: contd….

 An antifriction bearing reduces friction by removing sliding between

surfaces and replacing part contact with rolling components. A plain
bearing uses a lubricant to reduce the friction between the sliding
surfaces.

 A hydrostatic bearing employs a positive pressure supply that

maintains clearance between the rotating stationary elements. With a
hydrostatically lubricated bearing, the lubrication is introduced under
pressure between the moving surfaces. Because hydrostatic
lubrication does not depend on relative motion to maintain the
lubrication film, it can accommodate heavy loads at low speeds.

 A hydrodynamic bearing is typically a low-clearance assembly that

relies on a film of oil (and occasionally air) that develops clearance
while the spindle is rotating. Machines that use hydrodynamically
lubricated bearings should not be enduring high load during start up.
Oil Whirl and Whip Instabilities - Within
Journal Bearings
Oil whirl is probably the most
common cause of sub-
synchronous instability in
hydrodynamic journal bearings.
Typically, the oil film itself flows
around the journal to lubricate
and cool the bearing. This
develops an average speed
slightly less than 50 percent of
the journal surface speed.
Oil Whirl Instability
Oil whirl demonstrates the following characteristics:
 Oil whirl can be induced by several conditions including:

 Light dynamic and preload forces

 Excessive bearing wear or clearance

 A change in oil properties (primarily shear viscosity)

 An increase or decrease in oil pressure or oil temperature; improper

bearing design (sometimes an over design for the actual shaft loading)
 Fluid leakage in the shroud of blades and shaft labyrinth seals (so-
called “Alford force” or “aerodynamic force”)
 Change in internal damping (hysteretic, or material damping, or dry
(coulomb) friction)
 Gyroscopic effects, especially on overhung rotors with excessive
overhang.
Oil Whirl Instability contd….
 Oil whirl is easily recognized by its unusual vibration frequency which
is generally 40 percent to 48 percent of shaft RPM. (Reference 2
states that pure oil whirl occurs at 43 percent of shaft speed, but that
the instability may occur at the first critical speed.)

 Figure 2 shows the development of oil whirl just after the shaft is
brought up to speed. Note that the shaft went into whirl at a machine
speed of approximately 1,800 RPM and remained in whirl until about
4,000 RPM. At this point, note that the shaft 1X RPM speed entered
resonance, which actually generated sufficient force to overcome oil
whirl. However, once the machine passed through resonance, whirl
once again occurred just above 5,200 RPM.

 Oil whirl is considered severe when vibration amplitudes reach 40 to

50 percent of the normal bearing clearance. At this point, corrective
action must be taken.
Oil Whirl Instability contd….

Figure 2. Development of Oil Whirl

Just After Startup; Followed by Oil Whip
from 9,200 to 12,000 RPM
Oil Whirl Instability contd….
Corrective Measures:
 Temporary corrective measures include changing the temperature of
the oil (thus, the oil viscosity), purposely introducing a slight unbalance
or misalignment to increase the loading, temporarily shifting the
alignment by heating or cooling support legs, scraping the sides of or
grooving the bearing surface to disrupt the lubricant wedge, or
changing the oil pressure.

 Permanent corrective steps to resolve the oil whirl problem include

installing a new bearing shell with proper clearances, preloading the
bearing by an internal oil pressure dam, or completely changing the
bearing type to oil film bearings that are less susceptible to oil whirl
(including axial-groove bearings, lobed bearings or tilting pad
bearings). The tilting pad bearing is a good choice because each
segment or pad develops a pressurized oil wedge tending to center the
shaft in the bearing, thereby increasing the system damping and
overall stability.
Oil Whip Instability:

 Oil whip occurs on those machines subject to oil whirl

when the oil whirl frequency coincides with and becomes
locked into a system’s natural frequency (often a rotor
balance or critical speed frequency).
 For example, refer to Figure 2. When the rotor speed
increased to just above 9,200 RPM, its speed increased
to 2X its first balance natural frequency. At this time the
oil whirl which was approximately 43 percent of RPM,
was brought into coincidence with this critical speed. The
oil whirl was suddenly replaced by oil whip - a lateral
forward precessional subharmonic vibration of the rotor.
Dry Whip
 Dry whip occurs in journal bearing machines subjected to
either a lack of lubrication or the use of the wrong
lubricant.

 When this occurs, excessive friction is generated

between the stationary bearing and rotating journal. This
friction can excite vibration in the bearing and other
components. This kind of vibration is called dry whip. Dry
whip can also be caused by journal bearings having
excessive clearance as well as those having insufficient
clearance.
Journal Bearing Damages

Plain bearings have been used for many years in

all types of rotating machinery and the vast
majority gives excellent service over long periods
of time. When, however, they suffer damage the
cause may be vague.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
Typical Damage Types
1. Scoring Due To Foreign Matter Or ’Dirt’
2. Nitride Scars
3. Wiping Of Bearing Surface At Start-up/Rundown/Barring
4. Wiping Of Bearing Surface Due To Loss Of Clearance
5. Wiping Of Bearing Surface Due To Insufficient Lubricant Or
Operational Overload
6. Wiping Of Bearing Surface Due To Misalignment
7. Fatigue Cracking Of Bearing Surface
8. Pivot Fatigue Or Fretting
9. Corrosion
10. Fretting Damage Of Bearing Surface Due To Vibration
11. Lacquering Due To Oil Breakdown Or Contamination
12. Thermal Faceting
13. "Black Scab" Or "Wire Wool" Damage
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
1. Scoring Due to Foreign Matter or ’Dirt’

 Contamination of the lubricant includes

 Built-in dirt on housings, shafts, oil galleries etc present at the time of
machine assembly
 Entrained dirt entering through breathers or air filters, and particles
derived from the combustion of fuel in internal-combustion engines
where the lubrication system is shared with the driven machine
 Metallic wear particles resulting from abrasive wear of moving parts
 Dirt may cause polishing of the surfaces of whitemetal lined bearings,
burnishing of bronze bearings, abrasive wear of overlays or other
bearing linings, and scoring of both bearing and mating surfaces with
degrees of severity depending upon the nature and size of the dirt
particle, oil film thickness and type of bearing material.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
1. Scoring Due to Foreign Matter or ’Dirt’
Fig. 1
Material: Whitemetal
Severity: Moderate
Description: Bearing scored and pitted with dirt

Fig. 2
Material: Whitemetal
Severity: Severe
Description: “Haloes” caused by dirt particles
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
1. Scoring Due to Foreign Matter or ’Dirt’

Fig. 3
Material: Tin-based white metal
Severity: Severe
Description: Concentric scoring of thrust due to dirt
entering bearing at high speed

Fig. 4
Material: Tin-based whitemetal
Severity: Moderate
Description: Scoring by dirt entering at start-up

Fig. 5
Material: Tin-based whitemetal
Severity: Moderate
Description: Surface of pad in Fig. 4 at higher
magnification showing irregular tracks caused by
rolling of shot-blast spherical steel particles
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Recommended Action:
Bearings in condition shown in Figs 2 & 3 should
be scrapped or relined, and replacement bearings
fitted after cleaning journal, oil ways and filters.
Bearings in condition shown in Fig 1, 4, and 5,
should be re­fitted, after cleaning bearings and
journal surfaces, provided clearance increase due
to wear can be tolerated. In all cases, consideration
should be given to improving the level of full-flow
filtration or installing a by-pass centrifugal filter.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
2. Nitride Scars
If a shaft is hardened by nitriding and the friable layer is
not fully removed, distinctive V-shaped scars can
appear on the bearing surface after a short period of
running.
Recommended Action:
Replace or reline bearing unless the scars are in an
unloaded area. Ensure that the shaft is ground after
nitriding to remove at least 0.025 mm (0.001") of steel.
(Merely polishing off the friable layer is not sufficient).
Changing to a different bearing alloy is unlikely to be
effective.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Fig. 6
Material: Whitemetal
Application: Gearbox
Severity: Large scar in unloaded half
Description: Nitride Scar
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
3. Wiping Of Bearing Surface At Start-up/Rundown/Barring
A wiped bearing surface is where surface rubbing, melting and
smearing is evident. This may be due to excessive load at
start-up/rundown, or to other causes which are covered in the next
sections.

Recommended Action
Assuming that an adequate oil supply is present and it is not possible
to reduce the low speed specific load, the same damage is likely to
recur unless some other action is taken. If specific load at
start­up/rundown exceeds guidelines above and it is not possible to fit a
larger bearing, install jacking system. Consider use of polymer lined
bearing with improved boundary lubrication properties.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Fig. 7
Material: Tin-based whitemetal
Severity: Severe
Description: Surface wiping of axial
bearing pad, in successive thin layers, due
to excessive steady load at start-up
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
4. Wiping Of Bearing Surface Due To Loss Of Clearance
Wiping of bearing surfaces can occur due to the use of tight
clearances on a machine which has to start up rapidly from cold, where
heat generated within the oil film may cause the shaft temperature to
rise more rapidly than the bearing housing. Differential expansion of
the shaft can cause temporary reduction in radial bearing clearance,
which in severe cases may cause metal-to-metal contact in the zones
of minimum clearance in profile bore bearings. For tilting pad radial
bearings, the situation is more severe because the heat flow from pad
to housing is particularly poor causing the pads to expand inwards at
start-up.

 Recommended Action
Consult us for recommended design clearance to suit the operating
conditions.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Fig. 8
Material: White metal
Application: Test Rig
Severity: Moderate
Application: Tilting pad radial bearing
which wiped and
seized on rapid start-up to 5000
rev/min from cold
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
5. Wiping Of Bearing Surface Due To Insufficient
Lubricant Or Operational Overload
A wiped bearing surface may be due to inadequate or
interrupted oil supply or may follow disruption of the oil
film due to extreme operating load, or due to shaft
vibration which applies a large rotating load to the
bearing.
Recommended Action
Ensure that oil supply is adequate and continuous.
Consider installing header tank or back-up pump. In the
case of a vibration problem, seek specialist advice. If
the steady load is excessive, reduce it by machine
design changes or consult us for a bearing with higher
load capacity.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Fig. 9
Material: Tin-based white metal
Application: Test rig
Severity: Severe
Description: Ring-oiled bearing
wiped due to oil starvation
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
6. Wiping Of Bearing Surface Due To Misalignment
Another cause of wiped bearing surfaces is misalignment between
shaft and bearing surfaces, which leads to disruption of the oil film at
the edge of the bearing and causes a distinctive "parabolic" shaped
wipe in radial bearings. In axial bearings, support misalignment can
lead to pads at one side being wiped while those on the other side are
unmarked.

Recommended Action
If the wipe is slight, the bearing can continue in operation as its surface
will have "bedded in" to the actual shaft alignment and the wipe will
stabilise and not progressively get worse. In more severe cases,
replace the bearing and correct the alignment of the machine. If the
misalignment changes during machine operation, consult us for a
bearing design with some self-alignment capability, such as a tilting-
pad radial bearing or CQT compact equalised tilting-pad axial bearing.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

 Fig. 10
 Material: Overlay plated lead
bronze
 Application: Diesel engine
main bearing
 Severity: Moderate
 Description: Wiping due to
misalignment
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
7. Fatigue Cracking Of Bearing Surface
This is caused by the imposition of dynamic loads in excess of the
fatigue strength of the bearing material at operating temperature.
Fatigue strength especially of low melting point materials such as
whitemetals and lead-base overlays is greatly reduced at high
temperatures, hence overheating alone may cause fatigue damage.
Other causes are overloading, cyclic out-of-balance loading due to
overspeeding, shafts not truly cylindrical due to manufacturing defects.
In whitemetal linings, fatigue cracks typically join to form pits with a
characteristic rounded "molten" appearance.

Recommended Action
Investigate and rectify causes of high temperature or dynamic loading.
Consider using a higher strength bearing material or design changes to
increase load capacity.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
8. Corrosion
 Under normal conditions bearing materials are not attacked by lubricating oils.
However there are some adverse circumstances in which corrosion can occur.
 Corrosion of the lead in copper-lead and lead-bronze alloys, and of lead base
whitemetals, may be caused by acidic oil oxidation products formed in service,
by ingress of water or coolant liquid into the lubricating oil, or by the
decomposition of certain oil additives.
 Removal of overlays by abrasive wear or scoring by dirt exposes the
underlying lead in copper-lead or lead-bronze bearings to attack, while in
severe cases the overlays may be corroded.
 Hydrogen sulphide in the oil attacks the copper in copper-containing alloys,
including tin-base whitemetal. This causes a dark deposit, mainly copper
sulphide, on the surface. It also causes depletion of the copper-tin compound
in the lining, weakening the material.

Recommended Action Investigate oil condition to ascertain cause of corrosion.

Use scanning electron microscope elemental analysis to identify any deposit
on the bearing surface. In the case of hydrogen sulphide attack, change to
copper-free bearing specification.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
Fig. 18
 Material: Tin-based whitemetal
 Application: Marine Turbine
 Severity: Moderate
 Description: Corrosion. Water in the oil has
caused formation of smooth hard black
deposit of tin dioxide on surface

Fig. 19
 Material: Bronze interlayer of a polymer-
lined bearing
 Application: Pump
 Severity: Severe
 Description: Corrosion due to contamination
of the lubricant with a chlorine compound

Fig. 20
 Material: Copper-lead with lead-tin overlay
Application: Rolling Mill
 Severity: Severe
 Description: Corrosion by acidic
contamination in lubricating oil
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
9.Fretting Damage Of Bearing Surface Due To Vibration
 Bearing operating surfaces may suffer fretting damage while the shaft
is at rest due to vibrations transmitted to the machine from external
sources such as nearby machinery. Shipboard machinery is especially
prone to this problem. If the machine is started up after fretting has
occurred, the hard black deposit can cause wiping and obscure the
original fretting damage.
 Similar damage can occur to machines in transit if the shaft is not
clamped.

Recommended Action
Eliminate transmission of vibration from external sources if feasible by
flexibly mounting affected machine. If this is not possible, circulating oil
through the bearings of the stationary machine will reduce the amount
of damage. If damage occurs in transit, clamp rotor to prevent vibration
during shipment.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
Fig. 21
 Material: Tin-based whitemetal
 Application: Fan
 Severity: Severe
 Description: Static fretting
damage due to external
vibrations

Fig. 22
 Material: Tin-based whitemetal
Application: Compressor
 Severity: Moderate
 Description: Static fretting
damage on a set of radial bearing
pads. In this case the pad pivots
also show fretting damage
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
10.Lacquering Due To Oil Breakdown Or Contamination
 Sometimes a light brown deposit is observed in the hottest area of a
bearing surface. Usually this is harmless but in some cases it can build
up to a sufficient thickness to adversely affect the bearing oil film and
cause local overheating of the bearing surface, leading to fatigue or
intergranular craze cracking.
 This phenomenon is temperature dependent but is also affected by the
oil chemistry. Many mineral oils will form a lacquer if the bearing
surface temperature exceeds 130ºC (266°F), but lacquer can be
formed at much lower temperatures if the oil is contaminated or its air
release time is outside specification. Synthetic oils can form lacquer if
contaminated by hydrocarbons.

Recommended Action
Check condition of oil, and change oil if necessary. If excessive surface
temperature is the cause, consult us for designs which will operate at a
lower temperature.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Fig. 23
Material: Tin-based whitemetal Application: Gearbox Severity: Severe
Description: Lacquering in an offset halves radial bearing.
The resultant loss of clearance has led to intergranular craze cracking
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
11. Thermal Faceting
 This phenomenon only affects tin-base whitemetal. Tin crystals are
anisotropic, having different coefficients of thermal expansion in each
crystal axis. Repeated thermal cycling results in faceting of the bearing
surface due to a ratcheting process which in severe cases may cause
undulations in excess of
 0.025 mm (0.001"). Rarely, cracks may form between the grains.

Recommended Action
In mild cases no action is required. In more severe cases, either take
steps to reduce the temperature cycling or change to another bearing
material such as RPB AS40, 40% tin-aluminium.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….

Fig. 24
Material: Tin-based whitemetal
Severity: This type of damage is
usually only cosmetic
Description: Faceting on a tin-based
whitemetal pad due to thermal cycling
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
12. Black Scab Or Wire Wool Damage
 A large dirt particle (probably not less than 1mm (0.04")across) carried into the
clearance space by the lubricating oil, and becoming embedded in the bearing
may form a hard scab of material by contact with the steel journal or thrust
collar. This scab will then cause very severe damage to the mating steel
surface which is literally machined away with the formation of so-called "wire
wool".
 The action is self-propagating once started and susceptibility to scab formation
appears to depend upon the nature of the lubricant and the composition of the
steel of the rotor shaft or collar. Steels containing chromium or manganese in
excess of 1% appear to be particularly susceptible to scab formation,
especially in high speed machines with bearing rubbing speeds over 20m/s
(4000 ft/min) and with oils containing extreme pressure additives.

Recommended Action
Fit new bearings. Pay particular attention to cleanliness during assembly,
taking care to avoid contamination of bearing surface and oil ways with swarf
etc. Investigate possibility of changing journal or collar surface material by
sleeving with mild steel, or hard chrome plating. Changing the bearing alloy is
unlikely to be effective.
Journal Bearing Damages contd….
 THANKS
Thank you so much for your patience &
kind attention !!!