Language Diversity

And Speech
Communities
 The Development of
Language
▫+6,000 languages in the
world based on cultural
needs and values.
Language Diversity
• The ability that some individuals have, in
varying degrees, to use two languages
(Baker, 2001).

Q}Why linguistic diversity exists

• linguisltic variation is based on traits such as
class, gender, region, etc.

• linguistically – all ways of speaking are and

should be considered “equal”
No two individuals are exactly alike
in their range of social networks nor in
their linguistic capabilities. Yet there
is common ground which allows us to
communicate.
Each individual has a
repertoire(entire stock)) - control of a
number of varieties, whether these be
languages, dialects, styles, registers or
whatever. There will be a great deal of
overlap among speakers, and we can
use this overlap as a means for
Speech Communities
SPEECH COMMUNITY:
Human beings are social beings who are
always committed to a certain group of
people called a community.
A particular community has its own
characteristics, including the way of its
communication. This community is
called speech community.
Bloomfield ----- a speech community is a
group of people who interact by means of
Speech Community
A speech community is
defined as a group of people
who form a community and
share the same language or a
particular variety of language.
• Each of us belongs to a
number of speech
communities—e.g., our
national community, a local
(dialectal) community, a
generational community,
perhaps a professional or a
subculture defined by
interests…
Characteristics of a Speech
Community
a) They speak the same language or
dialect.
b) The members of the group must
interact linguistically with other
members of the community.
c) They may share similar attitudes
toward linguistic norms.
BILINGUALISM
Language in Contact
• A situation that arises when
▫ two or more languages are spoken in the
same or adjoining regions
• And
▫ when there is a high degree of
communication between the people
speaking them
• Language contact can result in
▫ Language loss or even language death
▫ Bi- / multilingualism
▫ Language change
BILINGUALISM
• Definition
• the ability of an individual or the
members of a community to use two
languages effectively.
• Example
• Children often adapt Quickly to
Bilingualism if they use a language such
as Urdu in their homes and a language
such as English at school.
 14

• People use the term

“bilingualism” in different
ways.
• For some, it means an equal
ability to communicate in two
languages.
• For others, it simply means
the ability to communicate in
two languages, but with
greater skills in one language
 Bilingualism - Definitions
Bloomfield (1933): native-like
control of two language
Mackey (1962): the ability to
use more than one language
Weinriech (1953): the practice
of alternately using two
languages
 Describing Bilingualism
• Bilingual is someone who:
▫ has a slight non-native accent in one or
both languages,
▫ makes occasional errors of syntax in one or
both languages,
▫ doesn’t always know the right word to use
in one or both languages,
▫ speaks both languages fluently but is
culturally comfortable in only one
language.
 What it means to be bilingual …
 75% of the world’s population speak two or more
languages.
 Not all bilinguals speak two languages at the same
level.
 By the age of 2.5, a bilingual child begins to make
choices in language use, usually the majority
language.
 Parents who want their children to keep their
heritage language must work at it.
 In the U.S. immigrants are strongly urged to learn
their language and discourages (stopping) from
Holding their heritage language.
 That is a national loss.
Potential problems with bilingualism

Interference between L1 and L2

Increasing proficiency in L2 leads to

reduced speed in L1
DIMENSIONS
OF
BILINGUALISM
Bilingualism
• Individual Bilingualism – the use of two
(or more) languages by an individual
▫ E.g., an individual who speaks both
English and Urdu
• Societal Bilingualism – the use of two (or
more) languages within a given
community
▫ E.g., the bilingual setting in Pakistan,
India, Canada, Switzerland, Malaysia, etc.
Bilingualism
1. Individual Bilingualism 2) Social Bilingualism
1. Coordinate 1. Additive Bilingualism
Bilingualism:
• 2 languages, 2 contexts. 2. Subtractive
Bilingualism

2) Compound
Bilingualism
(“pure”):
• 2 languages, 1
environment.

3) Sub coordinate
Bilingualism:
• 1 language dominates.
3 Types of Bilingualism
1. Coordinate Bilingualism
• bilingualism,
• in this type the individual learns the languages separately, in
separate environments, and maintains this separation after
mastering both.
• Learn two different language in two different contexts.
• For example, the language at home and school
Example :
• a student who speaks one language at home acquired via his
parents and the home environment and then learns a second
language at school he only speaks the second language at
school in a classroom environment and the language remain
separate in his mind
2. Compound Bilingualism
• In Compound Bilingualism there is no such
dividing line; the individual learns the
languages in the same environment and
context and they are often used
concurrently or even interchangeably.
Example :
• This is the case when a child is brought
up by bilingual parents, or those from
two different linguistic backgrounds.
This is additive in nature.
Additive vs. Subtractive
Bilingualism
• Additive bilingualism: an environment
contributing to the development of the first
language as well as the development of the
second language results in the maintenance
of both.

• Subtractive bilingualism / differential

bilingualism: Without first language
support, the learning of a new language
may cause the loss of that first language.
Sub coordinate Bilingualism:
Dominant Bilinguals\Active Bilingualism
• where the speaker can speak and
understand both the language.
• Individuals who are dominant in one
language.
▫ Less dominant language = ‘subordinate.’
▫ Dominance does not apply to all
domains.
 One may be dominant in the
subordinate language in some domains.
 Passive / Recessive
Bilinguals
• where the speaker can
understand L2 but cant to
choose to speak it.
• Individuals who are gradually
losing competence in one
language, usually because of
disuse.
 – Semilinguals / Limited
Bilinguals
• Individuals who appear to have limited
proficiency in both languages.
• Deficit in six language competencies:
▫ size of vocabulary
▫ correctness of language
▫ unconscious processing of language
(automation)
▫ language creation
▫ mastery of the functions of language (e.g.,
emotive, cognitive)
Native Bilingualism
• simultaneous learning of two languages during
the initial stages of language acquisition.

• Producing native bilingual children is not easy,

and neither is maintaining their bilingual skills
when they are living in an environment that
uses only one of the languages.

• Children need at least 20 hours of exposure to

a language per week to acquire productive
skills in it.
Successive vs. Simultaneous
Successive bilingualism:
•• Learning one language after already knowing another.
This is the situation for all those who become bilingual as
adults, as well as for many who became bilingual earlier in
life. Sometimes also called consecutive bilingualism.
Simultaneous bilingualism:
•Learning two languages as "first languages". That is, a
person who is a simultaneous bilingual goes from speaking
no languages at all directly to speaking two languages.
Infants who are exposed to two languages from birth will
become simultaneous bilinguals.
Early vs. Late bilinguals
Early bilingual:
• someone who has acquired two
languages early in childhood (usually
received systematic training/learning
of a second language before age 6).
Late bilingual:
• someone who has become a bilingual
later than childhood (after age 12).
MANIFESTATIONS
AND EFFECTS OF
BILINGUALISM
 32

Advantages of Being Bilingual

• You can get a number of benefits
of being bilingual in various
aspects such as
• cognitive benefits,
• curriculum advantages,
• cultural benefits,
• employment advantages,
• communication advantages
• and tolerance of other languages
 33

1.Cognitive benefits:
• A bilingual person can develop a
creative thinking and an ability to
think more flexibly.
• It enhances and enriches a person’s
mental development.
• The latest research has proved
that the bilinguals are better at IQ
tests as compared to the
monolinguals.
 34

Bilingualism Good for the

Brain
• People who speak
more than one
language seem to
perform better on
a variety of
cognitive tasks
 35

2. Communication advantages
• The bilinguals enjoy reading and
writing in different languages. They
can understand and appreciate
literatures in various languages.
• It gives a deeper knowledge of
different ideas and traditions. It
helps improve the ways of thinking
and behaving.
• They don’t face difficulties in
communication while in a foreign
country
 36

3. Cultural advantages
• Bilingualism offers an access and
exposure to different cultures.
• Knowledge of different languages
offers a treasure of traditional and
contemporary sayings, idioms, history
and folk stories, music, literature and
poetry in different cultures.
• Due to a wider cultural experience,
there is a greater tolerance of
 37

4. Character advantages:
• The bilinguals are able to
switch between different
languages and talk to
different people in various
languages.
• It increases a sense of self-
esteem.
 38

5.More Opportunities for

Work
•Being bilingual greatly
enhances your ability to
find work in certain fields,
especially where
international business is
concerned.
 39

Disadvantages of being
Bilingual
• The biggest issue with being
bilingual is the mix-up of words,
terms and grammar.
• When the language one speaks most
in is not the same as the one they
think in there is usually a high mix
of phrases and grammar
• School in English and Urdu.
Context of Bilingual Language
Acquisition
• Primary context / natural bilingualism:
situations in which a child acquires both
languages in a naturalistic setting without
any structured instruction,home
• Secondary context / school bilingualism:
situations in which a child acquires one of
the languages in a structured setting,
usually school.
Age of Acquisition
•Sensitive age for language
learning (from Lenneberg’s
1967 ‘critical period’):
•We have a language
learning capacity early in
life which will disappear or
decline with maturation.
Place of Language in Bilinguals’
Brain
• Bilinguals depend upon the same mechanism
in acquiring, producing and understanding
language as compared to the monolinguals.
• Electromagnetic imaging of the brains of
right handed bilinguals show that language
capacities are located in the left
hemisphere.
• But there are some exceptions as well.
Continued
• That is to say, the language
capacities in left handed bilinguals
and in ambidextrous (uses both
hands equally) people are in right
hemisphere.

• But such exceptions are very few.

Counter Arguments
(oppose sth, contradict)
• But some prominent researchers are there to
oppose such exceptions.
• Michel Paradis, a neuro-linguist and a
researcher has strongly opposed the idea of
the presence of language capacity in right
hemisphere.
• Bilinguals may use the same cerebral
mechanism available for unilingual (knowing
only one language).
Continued
• Another researcher, named Fabbro
opposed such notions.
• He points out that if left hemisphere is
damaged, over 95% of individuals show
some language loss.
MULTILINGUALISM
Multilingualism
•Multilingualism is the act of
using polyglotism, or using
multiple languages.
• It can be either used by an
individual speaker or by a
community of speakers.
What is a multi-lingual person?
• The terms bilingual and trilingual are
used to describe comparable situations in
which two or three languages are
involved/
• A multilingual person is generally
referred to as a polyglot.
• Poly (Greek: πολύς) means "many",
• glot (Greek: γλώττα) means
"language".
•There is a possibility for a
child to become naturally
trilingual by having a
mother and\ father
with separate languages
being brought up in a
third language
environment.
Multilingualism is the act of using
polyglotism, or using multiple languages. •
It can be either used by an individual
speaker or by a community of speakers.
 54

The Problem of Multilingualism

• In many speech communities around the world, many
people are either bilingual or multilingual (i.e. they
could speak two or more languages with a fair degree
of fluency).

• This of course is a consequence of the fact that the

society in which they live is a multilingual society.

• Societal multilingualism is a very widespread

phenomenon.

• The vast majority of the nations of the world have

more than one language spoken indigenously within
their frontiers.
• In some cases, the number of languages spoken in one
country may rise into the hundreds.
400+ languages 200+ languages 100+ languages
Papua New Mexico 291 Brazil 188
Guinea 820 Cameroon 280 Philippines 180
Indonesia 742 Australia 231 USA 162
Nigeria 516 D.R. Congo 216 Malaysia 140
India 427 Tanzania 128
Vanuatu 115
Vietnam 102
Russia 101
Total 2505 Total 1018 Total 1116
 56
Multilingual Nations
• Multilingual nations exist in all parts of the
world
• Difficulties only arise when one attempts to
locate a country that is genuinely
monolingual.
• Most people would accept as true
statements to the effect that Germans
speak German, and French speak French,
and so on.
• There are good reasons for this, but the
reality of the matter is somewhat different.
• Nearly all European countries contain
indigenous linguistic minorities. Iceland is
the only exception.
• In some cases, where the minority is
large, the nation-state usually has more
than one official language.
• Examples are Belgium (Dutch/Flemish
and French), Switzerland (German,
French, Italian and Romansch), and
Finland (Finnish and Swedish)
• In other cases, where the minority is
smaller or less influential, the minority
language or languages are unlikely to
have official status, and their speakers,
out of necessity, will tend to be
bilingual. This is what helps to give
 58

The problem of Language Minority and How it

has been Treated in Some Parts of the World
• Members of a language minority, especially
children, may be faced with very
considerable difficulties.
• This may occur where the two languages
involved are not closely related and also,
more importantly, where the educational
policy of a particular nation is to discourage,
or simply ignore, minority languages.
• In extreme cases the minority language may
be forbidden or disapproved of in school,
and children punished or actively
discouraged from using it there.
• This was formerly true both of
Welsh in Wales and Gaelic in
Scotland, and was for many years
the policy of the Turkish
government concerning Kurdish.
• One language which has received
particularly bad treatment and
no attention in Europe is
Romany, the originally north-
Indian language of the Gypsies.
 60

Language is a Symbol of Group

Identity
• Perhaps the biggest threat for a multilingual nation’s national
unity comes from the fact that ‘language’ acts as a symbol of
group identity.

• Where language is a defining characteristic of a minority ethnic

group wanting independence, particularly where other
characteristics are not significant, linguistic factors are likely to
play an important role in any separatist movement.

• This is a result of the fact that language acts as an important

symbol of group consciousness and solidarity.

• To preserve national unity of multilingual nations, where

minority language may be used for political reasons, the state
can overcome or minimized this problem either through
granting some political independence to linguistic minorities
or, less drastically, through adequate and fair educational
programs and policies.
 61

Lingua franca as a Solution to Multilingualism

• Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, is a very multilingual area
where language problems have been worse becaus e colonial
powers drew national frontiers without regard for the
geographical distribution of ethnic or linguistic groups.

• Communication problems in areas like these are not

necessarily so serious as one might think.

• In many areas of Sub-Saharan Africa people who belong to

different ethnic or linguistic groups are able to communicate
with each other quite easily.

• This is because they are also usually familiar with other more
widely spoken languages such as Swahili in East Africa, Hausa
in West Africa, English or French.

• Such languages function in such multilingual communities as

lingua francas.
 62

Deciding on a National and/or an Official

language for Multilingual Nations
• When governments are presented with the
problem of selecting a national or an official
language or languages, as many ‘new’ nations
have been, lingua francas are very useful.

• There are clear advantages to be gained from

the selection of a language which many people
already understand.

• In some cases, though, complications may arise

because competing or alternative lingua francas
are available.
 63

In India..
• There are over 300 native languages.

• Hindi, for example, is used as a lingua franca in much of

the northern part of the country.

• Hindi has an advantage, being an local native language,

but it also has a disadvantage of benefiting its native
speakers while other indigenous (local native)groups
still have to learn it as a second language.

• English, on the other hand, operates as a lingua franca

throughout the country, though tends to be used only by
relatively educated speakers.
• As a solution, English has been selected to be the official
language of the nation while Hindi and other native
languages are regarded as national languages of India.
 64

In Malaysia..
• Malay is the native language of perhaps 30 per cent of the population.

• Another 30 per cent speak one of twelve different Chinese languages.

• Roughly 10 per cent speak various Indian languages.

• The rest speak varieties of Portuguese, Thai and several ‘aboriginal’

languages.

• English is a lingua franca for many of the educated.

• The sociolinguistic problem is further complicated by the languages

which are used as the medium of instruction in schools: Malay, Tamil,
Mandarin, Arabic and English are all used as languages of instruction
in Malaysia.

• There is therefore clearly a problem in Malaysia as to which language

should be selected to act as the national language.