NUTRIENT

PROCUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Maintenance functions refer to the various physiological processes that occur in an organism
necessary for the maintenance of life. Some physiological processes for the maintenance of
life include nutrient procurement and processing. Maintenance functions help the organism
attain homeostasis, that is, the state of stable equilibrium in a biological system.
Since this maintenance process is needed to prevent damage and break-down, energy is
needed for them. This energy comes from outside the body of the individual organism. So
there must be a process to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of the organism,
which we call food, to the inside, a process we commonly call nutrition. The general
requirement for energy and materials is common in all organisms, but it is fulfilled in different
ways. Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in the form
of carbon dioxide and water. These organisms, the autotrophs, include green plants and some
bacteria. Other organisms utilize complex substances. These complex substances have to be
broken down into simpler ones before they can be used for the upkeep and growth of the
body.
Nutrient refers
to any
substance
required for
the growth and
maintenance
of an organism.
Two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight
and chemicals to produce their own food. Examples: plants;
chemosynthetic bacteria
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food
and obtain their energy from other organisms. Examples:
animals, fungi
 AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled by

photosynthesis. It is the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the
outside and convert them into stored forms of energy. This material is taken in
the form of carbon dioxide and water which is converted into carbohydrates in
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
Carbohydrates are utilized for providing energy to the plant.
The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of
starch, which serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when
required by the plant. A somewhat similar situation is seen in us where some of
the energy derived from the food we eat is stored in our body in the form of
glycogen.
 Nutritional requirements of plants
A. Water

B. Carbon dioxide

Water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials needed for photosynthesis
 
C. Essential nutrients or elements
Include macronutrients which are normally required in amounts above
0.5% of the plant’s dry weight and micronutrients which are required in
minute or trace amounts
examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo
Water and minerals from the soil need to reach
the conducting tissues of plants, specifically
the xylem.
The root hair cells absorb water from the soil
by osmosis. This water is transported to the 
xylem of the root through the root cortex. The
transportation of water also occurs by osmosis.
The routes for the absorption of
water and minerals across plant
roots can be symplast route –
through plasmodesmata and
apoplast route – along cell walls
Plasmodesmata (PD) are gated plant cell
wall channels that allow the trafficking of
molecules between cells and play important
roles during plant development and in the
orchestration of cellular and systemic
signaling responses during interactions of
plants with the biotic and abiotic
environment
In the apoplastic route, water moves through the cell walls and
the intracellular spaces of the root cortex.
The main difference between apoplast and
symplast is that apoplast is a fully permeable
route in which the water movement occurs
by passive diffusion whereas symplast is a
selectively permeable route in which the
water movement occurs by osmosis.
Specialized absorptive
structures:

ROOT HAIRS – slender

extensions of
specialized epidermal
cells that greatly
increase the surface
area available for
absorption.
ROOT NODULES –
Localized swellings in
roots of certain plants
where bacterial cells
exist symbiotically with
the plant. The bacteria
help the plant fix
nitrogen and in turn, the
bacteria are able to
utilize some organic
compounds provided by
the plant.
MYCORRHIZA (singular,
mycorrhiza) –
a symbiotic interaction
between a young root and
a fungus. The fungus
obtains sugars and
nitrogen-containing
compounds from root cells
while the plant is able to
get some scarce minerals
that the fungus is better
able to absorb from the soil
ANIMAL NUTRITION
HETEROTROPHIC
Different types of animals based on feeding mechanisms:
Substrate-feeders
Animals that live in or on their food source. Examples: earthworms that feed through the
soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat through the leaves where they live on.
 
Filter-feeders
Include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small organisms and food
particles present in the medium. Examples: whales and coelenterates
 
Fluid-feeders
Suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host. Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head
lice, aphids
 
Bulk-feeders
Eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws,
pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to pieces. Examples: snakes, cats,
man
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; this is coupled with the
mechanical breakdown of food into smaller pieces allowing for a
greater surface area for chemical digestion.
B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles. Chemical digestion by
enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the addition of
water, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis.
C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid across the tube
wall and into the body fluids; the cells take up (absorb) small molecules
such as amino acids and simple sugars.
D. Elimination –expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials
from the end of the gut.
Regardless of the variations in the
structures of a complete digestive
system (eg.digestive system of a toad
versus that of a bird), there are four
distinct stages of food processing
that are carried out. These are:
 Nutritional requirements of animals:
Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy
source for the cells in the body. These
are usually obtained from grains, cereals,
breads, fruits, and vegetables. On
average, carbohydrates contain 4
Calories per gram.
Glucose is the main source of fuel for
our cells. When the body doesn't
need to use the glucose for energy, it
stores it in the liver and muscles.
This stored form of glucose is made
up of many connected glucose
molecules and is called glycogen
When the production
of glucose exceeds
what the body needs,
it is stored as or used
to synthesize fats
Why is glucose a necessary fuel in the human body and what
organs or cell types rely most heavily on glucose?
a. Most human tissues cannot use glucose as an energy source.
b. Glucose is necessary for the continued function of the Na+/K+
pump, and the brain is the only organ that uses glucose as an
energy source.
c During exercise, the brain stops using glucose so that it can be
used by the muscles.
d. Glucose is necessary because it is used by almost all tissues for
energy and biosynthesis, and the brain relies almost entirely on
glucose as an energy source.
e. Glucose is necessary because it is the only source of energy that
can fully be oxidized to produce ATP, and the liver relies heavily on
glucose as its sole e
Proteins – can also be used as an energy
source but the body mainly uses these
as building materials for cell structures
and as enzymes, hormones, parts of
muscles, and bones. Proteins come from
dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and
grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also
contain 4 Calories per gram.
Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid
hormones, and other cellular structures; also used
to insulate nervous tissue, and also serve as an
energy source. Fats also contain certain fat- soluble
vitamins that are important for good health. Fats
are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried
foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They
contain a higher amount of energy per gram than
carbohydrates or proteins, about 9 Calories per
gram
Essential
Nutrients
Essential Nutrients
include substances
that animals can
only get from the
foods they eat
because they could
not be synthesized
inside the body.
These include:
Essential amino acids
– needed for synthesis
of proteins and
enzymes; among the
20 amino acids, eight
could not be
synthesized by
humans: lysine,
tryptophan, threonine,
methionine,
phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine and valine.
Essential fatty
acids – used
for making
special
membrane
lipids; an
example is
linoleic acid in
humans
Vitamins – organic
molecules
required in small
amounts for
normal
metabolism;
examples include
fat-soluble
Vitamins A, D, E, K,
and water-soluble
Vitamins B, B2, B3,
B12, C.
Trace Elements or Minerals
–inorganic nutrients needed
by the body in minute
amounts; these form part of
enzymes, body tissues, and
body fluids; examples
include: iodine, cobalt, zinc,
molybdenum, manganese,
selenium.
Nutrition in Human Beings
The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the
anus. Various regions are specialized to perform different functions. What
happens to the food once it enters our body?
From the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through the food-pipe or
esophagus. The stomach is a large organ which expands when food enters it.
The muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with
more digestive juices. These digestion functions are taken care of by the
gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach. These release hydrochloric
acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and mucus. The hydrochloric
acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme
pepsin.
What other function is served by the acid?
The mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under
normal conditions. We have often heard adults complaining about ‘acidity’. The exit of
food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases it in small
amounts into the small intestine.
From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. This is the longest part of the
alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact space because of extensive coiling. The
length of the small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they eat.
Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested.
Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine. The
small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. It
receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas for this purpose. The food coming from
the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the pancreatic enzymes to act. Bile
juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition to acting on fats. Fats are present in the
intestine in the form of large globules which makes it difficult for enzymes to act on them.
Bile salts break them down into smaller globules
increasing the efficiency of enzyme action. This is similar to
the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt. The pancreas
secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like
trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking down
emulsified fats.
The walls of the small intestine contain glands which
secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally
convert the proteins to amino acids, complex
carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol. The digested food is taken up by the walls of the
intestine.
The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous
finger-like projections called villi which increase the
surface area for absorption. The villi are richly supplied
with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to
each and every cell of the body, where it is utilized for
obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair
of old tissues. The unabsorbed food is sent into the
large intestine where more villi absorb water from this
material. The rest of the material is removed from the
body via the anus. The exit of this waste material is
regulated by the anal sphincter.
Mechanisms of digestion and absorption:
A. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but could not continue in the stomach
due to the acidic pH that destroys the amylase. It resumes in the small intestine where
the resulting monosaccharides are absorbed.
B. Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine. Resulting amino acids are
absorbed in the small intestine where they leave the intestinal cell and enter the blood
through a facilitated diffusion carrier in the plasma membranes on the opposite side.
C. Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine. Although fatty acids and
monoglycerides enter epithelial cells from the intestinal lumen, it is triglycerides that
are released on the other side of the cell and carried by blood capillaries to be
transported throughout the body.
D. Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion or active transport. Fat-
soluble vitamins follow the pathway for fat absorption.