UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO

SEMICONDUCTORS

Upon completion this topic, the students should be able to:-

1.1 Remember characteristics and electrical properties of

semiconductors.
1.1.1 Describe semiconductor of silicon and germanium
1.1.2 Describe characteristics of N-type and P-
type semiconductors.
1.0 Atomic Structure

Atom consists of a nucleus at the center which is

surrounded by electrons, the Bohr model had introduced
an atomic structure as shown in figure 1.0
 1.1.1 Atomic Structure

 The ability of a material to conduct

current is based on its atomic structure.
 The orbit paths of the electrons
surrounding the nucleus are called
shells.
 Each shell has a defined number of
2xn
electrons it will hold.( 2
)
Ex: Copper: 2.8.18.1 (electron valence)
 The outer shell is called the valence
shell and electrons at this layer are
called valence electrons.
 Maximum number of valence electron is
8
The maximum orbit in atom is 7 layers. Each orbits known as
K, L, M, N, O, P and Q layer . ( Or 1-7 ). Maximum number of
electrons in each orbit determine by formula:-

2 x n2 n is the number of layer

so… maximum number of electrons in each layer

K layer ( 1 ) : 2 x 12 = 2
L layer ( 2 ) : 2 x 22 = 8
M layer ( 3 ) : 2 x 32 = 18
N layer ( 4 ) : 2 x 42 = 32
O layer ( 5 ) : 2 x 52 = 50
P layer ( 6 ) : 2x 62 = 72
Q layer ( 7 ) : 2 x 72 = 98
 K layer ( 1 ) : 2 x 12 = 2
L layer ( 2 ) : 2 x 22 = 8
Example : M layer ( 3 ) : 2 x 32 = 18
Aluminum consist of 13 electrons; Determine the amount of
electron at each layer:

The outer layer of an atom named valens

The electrons in this layer called electron valens (it is current carrier).
The outer layer can fill up only 8 electrons. These number of electrons will
determine the electrical characteristics of the materials.
1.1.1 Describe semiconductor of Si and Germanium.

Electron Material
valens at Characteristics Definition of material and characteristics
outer layer
• Can conduct electric current.
• Low resistance that ease the current flow.
1 - 3 electron Conductor • The atom always discharged its electron Valens
valens and becoming free electrons move from one atom
to another.
• Cannot conduct electricity
5 –8 electron • High resistance
Insulator • The atom always received electron Valens from
valens
another atom to fill its Valens layer and becomes a
stable atom and capable to avoid any electrical
activities
• Is a material that has electrical
conductivity between a conductor and
4 electron
valens Semi-conductor an insulator.
• Not easy to discharge / receive electron
Valens from another atom
• In manufacturing, Silicone(Si) and
Germanium(Ger) are widely used.
• others are alloys (e.g., nichrome, brass),
1.1.1.1 Silicon and Germanium as samples of semiconductor..

In manufacturing, Silicone and Germanium are widely used.

Silicone and Germanium atomic structure. (Refer figure 1.2 and 1.3).

Valens layer that

contains 4
electrons Valens

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Atomic structure for Silicone Atomic structure for Germanium

• The outer layer for both atoms contains 4 electron valens(e.v.). And this
electrons carrying currents.
• If atom contain 4 e.v., it is assumed as unstable. It will try to complete the e.v.
from 4 e.v to 8 e.v by following another atom and shared the electrons. This
electron sharing is known as Covalent bonds.
1.1.1.2 Covalent Bond

-The silicone atoms sharing their electrons

with their neighbours so that it looks like
having 8 electrons valens.
-It makes the atom becomes stable and has
strong bonding.
-At this state the atoms act as an insulator
Figure 1.4 : Silicone at the room temperature.
Covalent bonds -There are several factors that effected the
stability of an atom such as heat, increase
in temperature, potential difference and
doping process.

-If a small voltage applied through this material, a small current will
exist (i.e a little free electrons). By increasing the temperature, more
electrons will leave this bonding to become free electrons.
- At the same time, the small voltage is remains applied and this
caused a current flow (electron movement).
-At this state the material will act as a conductor.
 FACTOR STABILITY OF ATOM

HEAT INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE

-In low temperature, covalent bond

is good.
-When temperature is increasing,
the atom become unstable.
-Electrons free from their bonding,
moving from one orbit to another
DOPING PROCESS orbit randomly.

-Process to increase the number of

any current carrier (either free
electron or hole) in semiconductor.
-If semiconductor is doped with POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
trivalent material (3e.v) it will
produce P-type semiconductor. -When a high voltage supplied to as
-If semiconductor is doped with a semiconductor materials, electrons
pentavalens material (5e.v) it will will move to the positive potential.
produce N-type semiconducor. -In that time, it will act as a
conductor.
1.1.2 DESCRIBE CHARACTERISTICS OF N-TYPE & P-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR
1.1.2.1 : Current Carriers – Free Electrons and holes
-Covalent bonding will be disturbed when some electrons
discharged from its structure. ( refer figure 1.5)

Figure 1.5
-Since the electron is negative charged, hence free electron
is known as ‘negative current carriers’
The discharged electron will leave an empty space that we
called hole.
The hole is positive charged, hence it is known as ‘positive
current carriers’
1.1.2.2 : Intrinsic semiconductor
-a pure semiconductor that has no foreign substance.
E.g. :- Germanium and Silicon crystal.
- the number of electrons and holes are equal: n = p.

1.1.2.3 : Extrinsic semiconductor

-if pure semiconductor mixed with foreign substance, it will

become a multi-useful material.

This process known as ‘doping process’, a process where

one of the current charge (free electron or hole) is many in
the semiconductor.

-Impurities used known as:-

i. Trivalens (has 3 electron valens) e.g. Aluminium, Boron
ii. Pentavalens (has 5 electron valens) e.g. Arsenic and phosforus.

-Extrinsic semiconductor widely used to make semiconductor

components such as diode, transistor and PCB.
 1.2.4 : N-TYPE MATERIAL
It happens when pure semiconductors (eg Silicone) is doping with
Pentavalent impurities (5 e.v.), e.g. Arsenic (refer figure 1.6) :

Free Electron from

arsenic atom which
doesn’t have couple.

Figure 1.6
Silicon doped with Arsenic
-4 of 5 e.v. from the foreign substance atom will form Covalent bonds
with Silicon atoms but there will be one more electron that has no
couple.
-This electron will be discharged of its orbit and become free electron,
which is a negative current charge. If more Pentavalens are absorbed,
there will be more of free electron being formed (negative current
charge).

- Since the free electrons outnumber the holes in n-type semiconductor,

- the free electrons are called majority carriers and the holes are
called minority carriers.
1.2.5 : P-TYPE MATERIAL
-It happens when the pure semiconductor (e.g.Silicone) is doping
with Trivalens impurities . (3 e.v.) , e.g. Indium (Refer figure
1.7).

Figure 1.7
Silicone is absorbed with Indium

-3 Si atoms allowed 1 electron Valens to form Covalent bond but one

more is not because lack of foreign substance electron Valens. This
empty space formed a hol, which is a positive current charge.
-When more of Trivalens are absorbed, there will be more of positive
current charges, and for this reason it is known as type-P material.

- Since the holes outnumber the free electron in p-type semiconductor,

- the holes are called majority carriers and the free electron are
called minority carriers.
Q1. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about an n-type semiconductor?

A. It is formed by doping trivalent atoms into pure silicone.

B. The majority carrier charges are electrons
C. The minority carrier charges are hole
D. It conduct electricity when connected in circuit

Ans: A

Q2. Which of the following statement explains the term of semiconductor?

A. Valence electron are weakly attracted to the nucleus of the atoms.

B. Material that behaves in between a conductor and insulator.
C. The substance that resist the flow of electric current.
D. High amount of free mobility electrons.

Ans: B
Q3. The semiconductor is defined as…
A. A material that has a conductivity level somewhere between the
extremes of an insulator and a conductor.
B. A material that will support a generous flow of charge when a
voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals
C. A material which is resistance to the flow of charge or current.
D. A material that offers a very low level of conductivity under
pressure from an applied voltage source.

Ans: A

Q4.Valence electrons are …

a)In the closest orbit to the nucleus 14

b)In the most distant orbit from the nucleus
c)In various orbits around the nucleus
d)Not associated with a particular atom

Ans: B
Q5. The process of adding an impurity to an
Instrinsic Semiconductor is called
 
a) Doping Ans: A
b) Recombination
c) Atomic modification
d) Ionization
Q1-

Table 1.0 below is the THREE (3) characteristics of N-type and P-type
semiconductors. Fill in the empty box with correct answer.

Characteristics N-type
N-type P-type
P-type

The number of valence electron Pentavelen(5 e) Trivalen(3e)

Majority current carrier electron Hole

Minority current carrier hole electron

Q2-

Aluminum contain 13 electrons; Determine the total amount

at every layer with an atomic structure diagram
Q3-

What happen when P-N junction is supplied with forward

biased voltage in _____
i. Area of depletion region
ii. Junction resistance

Ans.
i. When P-N junction is supplied with forward biased voltage
the area of depletion region BECOME SMALLER(1.5m)
ii. When P-N junction is supplied with forward biased voltage
the Junction resistance BECOME LOW(1.5m)