CHAPTER 1:

SOLID STATE DEVICES

CO1 - Describe the concept of solid state devices,

general amplifier and bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs).

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 Contents

 Introduction  resistance levels

 semiconductor material  diode equivalent circuits
 covalent bonding  zener diodes
 energy level  Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs)
 Intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductor
 PN junction
 Actual diode
characteristic

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1.1 INTRODUCTION


Solid state component has replaced the
vacuum tubes.
 Three factors that limits the miniaturization:
i. quality of the semiconductor material.
ii. Network design technique.
iii. Limits of the manufacturing and processing
equipment.

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1.1 INTRODUCTION (cont)

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1.1 INTRODUCTION (cont)
Transistor
History

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1.1 INTRODUCTION (cont)
 In electronic system, the electronic devices are
used in:
-communication (TV, Radio)
-digital system (calculator, PC)
-industrial system (robotic, process control)
-medical system (ECG, x-ray)
-instrumentation (oscilloscope, signal generator)

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 1.1.1 Atomic Theory
 Atom: the smallest particle of an element.
 Atom is made of 3 basic particles:
- proton (positive charge)
- neutron (no/natural charge)
- electron(negative charge)
 Nucleus is the core of an atom where proton and neutron are located.
 Electrons is the particles that orbit the nucleus.

Figure 1.0 : Basic atom

structure

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 1.1.1 Atomic Theory cont.
 Model used : Bohr model
 Shell or orbital path are identified using letter K through Q.
 The number of electrons orbiting the shell is determined by the
formula where n is the number of shell.
 Valence shell is the outer most shell or band which determines
the chemical properties and its electrons are called valence
electrons.

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 1.1.1 Atomic Theory cont.
 Contain 1 (nearly perfect conductor) up to 8(insulator) valence
electrons (e-).
 Semiconductor have 4 valance e-.
 Conductivity depends on the number of electrons in valence band.
 The conductivity increase cause the valence e- decrease.
 Maximum number of electrons in each shell can be calculated by
the formula 2n2 where nth is the shell number.
 Eg. Shell K is the 1st shell. So Ne = 2(1)2 = 2 (2e- in 1st shell)
 Eg. Shell M is the 3rd shell. So Ne = 2(3)2 = 18 (18e- in 3rd shell)

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 1.1.2 Free Electrons
 Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distance from the
nucleus.
 Electron near the nucleus have less energy.
 Each distance from the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy level.
 When electron acquires enough energy, it can leave the valence band
and become a free electron which its exist in conduction band.
Conduction band
-
e (free electron)

e (valence e-)

10
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1.1.3 Conduction Band

 When electron acquires enough energy (from heat energy),

it can leave the valence band and become a free electron
which is exist in conduction band.

 Conduction band - is band outside valence band which level

of energy of an e- is high enough and capable of being
influence by an external force.

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 1.2 Semiconductor materials

 Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a

conductivity between that of a good conductor and that of
an insulator.

 3 semiconductors used most frequently in the construction

of electronics devices are Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si) and
Gallium Arsenic (GaAs).

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1.2.1 Semiconductor
 A material that has a conductivity level somewhere between
extremes of insulator and a conductor.
 Have 4 valence e-.
 Eg: Silicon (Si) :14 e- which 4 valence e-
 Eg: Germanium (Ge): 32 e- which 4 valence e-
 Eg: Carbon (C): 6 e- which 4 valence e-
 For solid state component, Si and Ge are widely used.

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 1.3 Covalent Bonding
 a method by which atoms complete their valence shells
by “sharing” valence electrons with other atoms.

 Example: Si atoms combine together to form a solid

material. They arrange a fixed pattern called crystal.

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1.3 Covalent Bonding cont.
 Result of covalent bonding are as follow:

i) atoms are held together forming a solid

substance.
ii) atoms are electrically stable because valence
shell are complete.
iii) Complete valence shells cause Si to act as
insulator.

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 1.4 Energy Level

 Associates with orbiting electron. The more distant the

electron from the nucleus, the higher energy states.
 Any electron that has left its parent atom has higher
energy state than any electron in the atomic structure.
 No electrons in the isolated atomic structure can exit
between the gaps in the energy level.
 Ionization is a mechanism whereby an electron can absorb
sufficient energy to break away from the atomic structure
and enter conduction band.

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 1.4 Energy Level cont.

The energy associated with each electron is measured in

electron volts (eV).
W=QV
Q is the charge associated with a single electron [coulomb]

1 eV = 1.6 x 10
 -19 J

At 0 K or absolute zero, all valence electrons of semiconductor

materials are locked in their outer most shell of the atom with
energy levels associated with valence band.
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1.4 Energy Level (cont.)

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1.4.1 Energy Gap

 Energy gap is gap between two orbital shell or the

difference in energy between the band.

 Example: gap between valence and conduction

band. This is the amount of energy required for a
valence e- to jump from the valence band to
conduction band.
 For example, it absorb an amount of energy
1.8eV – 0.7eV = 1.1.eV (for Si material)

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1.4.2 Ionization

 The process of an atom either loosing or gaining an

electron valence to become positive ions or negative
ions.
 When a neutral atom loses its valence electron
(valence e-), its become positive ion.
 The escape valence electron is called free electron.
 When free electron loses energy and falls back into
the outermost shell, its become negative ion.

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1.4.3 Electron-Hole pair (EHP)
 When a valence e-absorbs enough energy (thermal
energy), it jump from valence band to the conduction
band and become free e-.

 When an e- jump to the conduction band, a vacancy

left in the valence band is called hole.

 For every conduction band e- and valence band hole

is called EHP.

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1.4.3 Electron-Hole pair (EHP) cont.

Si

Hole

hv

Si

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1.4.4 Recombination & EHP Life Time

 Within a very short time becoming a free e- in

conduction band, this e- will loses energy and falls
back into a hole in valence band. This process is
called recombination.

 The time taken from an e- jump into conduction

band to become a free e- until it falls back to a
hole (recombination occurs) is called Life time of
EHP.

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 1.4.5 Electron Current
 When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic Si,
the thermally generated free e- in conduction band are
easily attracted toward the positive terminal of the
supply and its called Electron Current

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 1.4.6 Hole Current
 A valence e- can move into nearby hole with a little
changes in its energy level, thus leaving another hole
where it come from. Effectively the hole moved from one
place to another in the crystal structure and it called hole
current

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 1.4.7 Conduction Versus Temperature
 At room temperature pure Si has no free electron.
 Semiconductor have some no. of free e- when no
voltage applied.
 As temperature increase, e- will absorb enough
energy to break their covalent bonds and no. of
free e- will increase.
 As temperature decrease, less thermal energy to
release the e- from their covalent bonds and no. of
free e- will decrease.
 Conductivity of semiconductor ∞ temperature.
When circuit is warm up, current will increase.

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 1.5 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor

 Intrinsic: semiconductor which has a very low level

impurities.
 Intrinsic Si and Ge – poor conductor (relatively large
energy gap)
 Extrinsic – semiconductor that has been subjected to a
doping process. No longer as pure/intrinsic material.

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 1.5.1 Semiconductor Type and Doping Process

* 2 types of semiconductor material that are subjected to

doping process:
 N-type – negative charge of e-. Created by adding
impurity element with 5 valence e- into pure Si or Ge.
Electrons are majority carriers. Holes created by EHP are
minority carrier.
 P-type – positive charge of hole. Created by adding
impurity element with 3 valence e- into pure Si or Ge.
Holes are majority carrier. Electron are minority carrier.
* Doping is process of adding impurities atom to intrinsic
Si or Ge to improve the conductivity of a semiconductor.
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 1.5.1 Semiconductor Type and Doping Process (cont.)

 Two types of element are used in doping process:

 Trivalent – 3 e- valence. Known as acceptor or p-type

material. Eg:
Aluminium (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron (B) and
Indium (In)

 Pentavalent – 5 e- valence. Known as donor or n-type

material. Eg:
Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi).
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 1.5.2 Doping process of semiconductor
 Trivalent impurity atom in Si
crystal structure. An Aluminum
impurity atom is shown in the
center.- Ptype material

 Pentavalent impurity atom in Si

crystal structure. A Phosphorus
impurity atom is shown in the
center.- N-type material

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 1.6 PN junction

 N-type and P-type materials are “joined” together

to create a pn diode.
 2 terminal device
 PN Junction operating mechanism
-No bias
-Forward bias
-Reversed bias
-Temperature Effect
-Resistance levels
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 1.6 PN junction cont.

•When the materials are joined, the negatively charged atoms of

the n-type doped side are attracted to the positively charged atoms
of the p-type doped side.
•The electrons in the n-type material migrate across the junction to
the p-type material (electron flow).
Or
You could say the ‘holes’ in the p-type material migrate across the
junction to the n-type material (conventional current flow).
•The result is the formation of a depletion layer around the
junction.

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 1.6.1 DEPLETION LAYER

 The depletion region also called depletion layer/ depletion zone/

junction region/ the space charge region is an insulating region
within a conductive, doped semiconductor material where the
charge carrier have diffused away, or have been forced away by an
electric field.

 The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a

conducting region by removal of all free charge carriers, leaving
none to carry a current.

 Understanding the depletion region is key to explaining modern

semiconductor electronics such as diodes, BJTs, FETs and variable
capacitance diodes. Its all rely on depletion region phenomena.

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1.6.2 Operating Conditions

• No Bias

• Forward Bias

• Reverse Bias

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 1.6.2.1 No Bias Condition

No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V and no current is flowing ID = 0A.

Only a modest depletion layer exists.

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1.6.2.2 Reverse Bias Condition

•External voltage is applied

across the p-n junction in the
opposite polarity of the p- and
n-type materials.

This causes the depletion layer to

widen.
The electrons in the n-type material are
attracted towards the positive terminal
and the ‘holes’ in the p-type material
are attracted towards the negative
terminal.

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 1.6.2.3 Forward Bias Condition

External voltage is applied

across the p-n junction in
the same polarity of the p-
and n-type materials.

The depletion layer is

narrow. The electrons
from the n-type material
and ‘holes’ from the p-
type material have
sufficient energy to cross
the junction.

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 1.7 Actual Diode Characteristics

Note the regions for No Bias, Reverse Bias, and Forward Bias
conditions. Look closely at the scale for each of these conditions!
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 1.7.1 Basic operation
Ideally it conducts current in only one direction

and acts like an open in the opposite direction

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1.7.2 Characteristics of an ideal diode: Conduction Region

Look at the vertical line!

In the conduction region, ideally
• the voltage across the diode is 0V,
• the current is ,
• the forward resistance (RF) is defined as RF = VF/IF,
• the diode acts like a short.

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 1.7.3 Characteristics of an ideal diode: Non-
Conduction Region

Look at the horizontal line!

In the non-conduction region, ideally
• all of the voltage is across the diode,
• the current is 0A,
• the reverse resistance (RR) is defined as RR = VR/IR,
• the diode acts like open.

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 1.7.4 Majority and Minority Carriers in Diode

A diode, as any semiconductor device is not perfect!

There are two sets of currents:

• Majority Carriers
The electrons in the n-type and ‘holes’ in the p-type material
are the source of the majority of the current flow in a diode.

• Minority Carriers
Electrons in the p-type and ‘holes’ in the n-type material are rebel
currents. They produce a small amount of opposing current.

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 1.7.5 Forward Bias Voltage

The point at which the diode changes from No Bias condition to

Forward Bias condition happens when the electron and ‘holes’
are given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction.
This energy comes from the external voltage applied across the
diode.

The Forward bias voltage required for a

• Silicon diode VT  0.7V
• Germanium diode VT  0.3V
• Ideal diode = 0V

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 1.7.6 Temperature Effects

 As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode.

 It reduces the required Forward bias voltage in Forward Bias

condition.

 It increases the amount of Reverse current in Reverse Bias condition.

 It increases maximum Reverse Bias Avalanche Voltage.

 Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variations than

Silicon Diodes.
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 1.8 Resistance Levels

Semiconductors act differently to DC and AC currents.

There are 3 types of resistances.

• DC or Static Resistance
• AC or Dynamic Resistance
• Average AC Resistance

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 1.8.1 DC or Static Resistance

RD = VD/ID
For a specific applied DC voltage VD, the diode will have a specific current ID,
and a specific resistance RD.
The amount of resistance RD, depends on the applied DC voltage.
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1.8.2 AC or Dynamic Resistance

Forward Bias region:

rd = ΔVD/Δ ID = 26mV/ID
• The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the diode.
• The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26mV for 25C).
• rB ranges from a typical 0.1 for high power devices to 2 for low power,
general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be ignored.

Reverse Bias region:

rd = ∞
The resistance is essentially infinite. The diode acts like an open.

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 1.8.3 Average AC Resistance

Vd
rav  (point to point)
Id

AC resistance can be determined by picking 2 points on the

characteristic curve developed for a particular circuit.
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1.9 Diode Equivalent Circuit

 Piecewise Linear Equivalent Circuit

- Total forward voltage, VD across the diode must
greater than VT before the ideal diode in the
equivalent circuit will forward bias.

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1.9 Diode Equivalent Circuit (cont.)

 Simplified Equivalent Circuit (Approximate)

- Total forward voltage, VD across the diode must
greater than VT before the ideal diode in the
equivalent circuit will forward bias.

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1.9 Diode Equivalent Circuit (cont.)

 Ideal devices
- The barrier potential is negligible, hence once the
circuit ON or short at zero potential current will flow
significantly and VD = 0V

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 1.10 Zener Diode

•A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias at

the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) called the Zener
Voltage (VZ).
• Common Zener Voltages: 1.8V to 200V

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 1.10.1 Zener Region

Another detail about the diode

is the useful Zener region.

The diode is in the reverse bias condition.

At some point the reverse bias voltage is so large the diode breaks down.
The reverse current increases dramatically.
This maximum voltage is called avalanche breakdown voltage and the
current is called avalanche current.

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 1.11 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

•This diode when forward biased emits photons. These can be in the
visible spectrum.
• The forward bias voltage is higher, usually around 2-3V.

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