SENSORY ORGANS

• The sensory system consists of sensory receptors at the peripheral endings of

afferent neurons, the ascending pathways in the spinal cord and the brain centers
responsible for sensory processing and perception.
• Hence, it spans both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
• Sensory receptors exist internally and externally around the body and are activated
via different stimuli. They are designed to respond to the body’s interaction with the
external environment or its internal state.
• Sensory receptors are specialized to respond to stimuli of the following: light,
chemical, mechanical, thermal or nociceptive stimuli.
• The activated sensory receptor generates an action potential, which propagates
along the axon to reach the CNS
SENSORY TRANSDUCTION
• A stimulus to a sensory receptor results in a change in the cell membrane’s ionic permeability,
which leads to a generation of an action potential.
• This process of converting a sensory signal into an electrical signal is known as sensory
transduction.
• In general, a higher intensity stimulus will generate a higher frequency of action potentials along
the neuron. However, different types of receptors will adapt to prolonged stimulation in different
ways:
 Tonic receptors are slow adapting receptors. They will respond to the stimulus as long as it
persists, and produce a continuous frequency of action potentials. Hence, they convey information
about the duration of the stimulus.
Phasic receptors are rapidly adapting receptors. They will respond quickly to stimuli but stop
responding upon continuous stimulation. Therefore, action potential frequency decreases during
prolonged stimulation. This class of receptor conveys information about the changes to the
stimulus such as intensity.
SENSORY MODALITY-TOUCH
• Sensory modalities can be thought of as subtypes of sensory experiences, such as pain,
temperature, pressure etc. Each sensory modality is perceived by a class of specialised receptors:
Nociceptors
• Nociceptors are receptors, which respond to noxious stimuli (stimuli that would cause tissue
injury if they were to persist) and their activation results in the sensation of pain.
• The receptors are free nerve endings, found on the ends of the type Aδ fibres and type C fibres
that transmit the pain sensation. These are further categorised into:
 Mechanical – stimulated by the distension of skin (stretch) and pressure eg. in inflammation
 Thermal – stimulated by extremities of temperature
 Chemical – stimulated by exogenous and endogenous chemical agents, such as prostanoids,
histamines etc
 Polymodal – can respond to more than one stimuli
MECHANORECEPTORS
These are located in joint capsules, ligaments, tendons, muscle and skin, and respond to deformation by
the means of pressure, touch, vibration or stretch.
MECHANORECEPTORS

• Merkel’s discs: These are tonic receptors present in skin, near the border of the dermis and epidermis. They
respond to pressure and are particularly sensitive to edges, corners and points. They play a key role in
differentiating textures.
• Meissner’s corpuscles: These are phasic receptors present in the dermis of the skin, namely on the palms of the
hands, soles of the feet, lips and tongue. They detect the initial contact with objects or slipping of the objects held
in hand.
• Pacinian corpuscles: These are phasic receptors are present in the dermis, hypodermis, ligaments and external
genitalia. They respond to high-frequency vibration and are crucial in our ability to detect vibrations transmitted
through objects in our hands.
• Ruffini corpuscles: These are tonic receptors present in the dermis, ligaments and tendons. They are the least
understood of the mechanoreceptors. They respond to stretch and signal position and movements of fingers.
• Muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs: These exist in skeletal muscle and detect stretch. The detected stimuli
contribute to the generation of reflexes at the level of the spinal cord. Additionally, the signals are transmitted to
the dorsal column medial lemniscal pathway (DCML), subsequently reaching the cerebral cortex and providing
information about posture, position and orientation of limbs and joints in space – proprioception.
THERMORECEPTORS
• Thermoreceptors are found within the skin, liver, skeletal muscle and hypothalamus. They respond to
changes in temperature. Those responding to warm temperatures are present within type C fibres,
whereas those responding to cold are present within of both type C and type Aδ fibres. Cold
thermoreceptors are thought to be around three times more common than those responding to
warmth.
• A warm stimulus results in both an increase in firing for warm receptors and a decrease in firing for
cold receptors (and vice versa for cool stimuli). Initially, the response of receptors changes very quickly
based on minute temperature changes, however, after a time, this phasic activity switches to a tonic
response, allowing adaptation to the temperature if it remains constant.
• Temperature stimuli are transmitted to the central nervous system via the lateral spinothalamic tract,
a part of the anterolateral system. Further information on the ascending pathways, including this
system, can be found here.
• All modalities have different qualities that can be felt. For example, pain can be sharp/aching, the
temperature can be hot/warm/cold. The quality felt depends on the subtype of the activated
receptor, whereas its intensity depends on the strength of the stimulus.
HYPERALGESIA
• Hyperalgesia is an increased sensitivity to pain, which may be due to damage to
nociceptors or peripheral nerves. It is present in many disease states, for
example, in inflammation and it may act as physiological protection from further
damage.
• Primary hyperalgesia is thought to be due to nociceptor sensitisation and occurs
in diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Secondary hyperalgesia is thought to be
a result of central sensitisation and is generally found in neuropathic pain.
• It is also important to be aware of hyperalgesia as it may be opioid-induced in
some patients and is a common reason for a reduction in the efficacy of opioid-
based medications for pain relief. As it is distinct from opioid tolerance,
increasing the dose of these medications does not improve the pain, but
worsens it, increasing the sensitivity even further.
SENSE OF HEARING
• The ear is the sense organ that detects sound and plays a major role
in the sense of balance and body position. It is also a device used for
collecting and funneling sound waves recieved by the ear.
• The sensory receptors for both hearing and equilibrium are found in
the inner ear, consisting of hair cells that have stereocilia (long
mircovilli). The stereocillia are extremely sensitive to mechanical
stimulations, which are known as mechanoreceptors.
OUTER EAR
• The outer ear is the most external portion of the ear. The outer ear includes the pinna (also
called auricle), the ear canal, and the very most superficial layer of the ear drum (also called
the tympanic membrane).
• Although the word "ear" may properly refer to the pinna (the flesh covered cartilage
appendage on either side of the head), this portion of the ear is not vital for hearing.
• The complicated design of the human outer ear does help capture sound, but the most
important functional aspect of the human outer ear is the ear canal itself. This outer ear
canal skin is applied to cartilage; the thinner skin of the deep canal lies on the bone of the
skull.
• If the ear canal is not open, hearing will be dampened. Ear wax (medical name - cerumen) is
produced by glands in the skin of the outer portion of the ear canal. Only the thicker
cerumen-producing ear canal skin has hairs. The outer ear ends at the most superficial layer
of the tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane is commonly called the ear drum.
MIDDLE EAR
• The middle ear includes most of the ear drum (tympanic membrane) and the 3 ear bones ossicles:
malleus (or hammer), incus (or anvil), and stapes (or stirrup). The opening of the Eustachian tube also
within the middle ear.
• The malleus has a long process (the handle) that is attached to the mobile portion of the ear drum.
The incus is the bridge between the malleus and stapes. The stapes is the smallest named bone in the
human body. The stapes transfers the vibrations of the incus to the oval window, a portion of the
inner ear to which it is connected. It is the final bone in the chain to transfer vibrations from the
eardrum to the inner ear.
• The movement of the tympanic membrane causes movement of the first bone, which causes
movement of the second, which causes movement of the third. When this third bone pushes down, it
causes movement of fluid within the cochlea (a portion of the inner ear). This particular fluid only
moves when the stapes footplate is depressed into the inner ear.
• Unlike the open ear canal, however, the air of the middle ear is not in direct contact with the
atmosphere outside the body. The Eustachian tube connects from the chamber of the middle ear to
the back of the pharynx.
INNER EAR
• The inner ear includes both the organ of hearing (the cochlea) and a sense organ that is attuned to
the effects of both gravity and motion labyrinth or vestibular apparatus.
• The balance portion of the inner ear consists of three semi-circular canals and the vestibule. The
inner ear is encased in the hardest bone of the body. Within this ivory hard bone, there are fluid-
filled hollows.
• Within the cochlea are three fluid filled spaces: the tympanic canal, the vestibular canal, and the
middle canal. The eighth cranial nerve comes from the brain stem to enter the inner ear.
• When sound strikes the ear drum, the movement is transferred to the footplate of the stapes, which
presses into one of the fluid-filled ducts of the cochlea.
• The hair cells in the organ of Corti are tuned to certain sound frequencies, being responsive to high
frequencies near the oval window and to low frequencies near the apex of the cochlea.
• The fluid inside this duct is moved, flowing against the receptor cells of the organ of Corti, which fire.
These stimulate the Spiral Ganglion, which sends information through the auditory portion of the
eighth cranial nerve to the brain.
PROCESS OF HEARING
• Detection of sound motion is associated with the right posterior superior temporal gyrus.
The superior temporal gyrus contains several important structures of the brain, including:
• marking the location of the primary auditory cortex, the cortical region responsible for the
sensation of sound. Sections 41 and 42 are called the primary auditory area of the
cerebrum, and processes the basic characteristics of sound such as pitch and rhythm. The
auditory association area is located within the temporal lobe of the brain, in an area
called the Wernicke's area, or area 22. This area, near the lateral cerebral sulcus, is an
important region for the processing of acoustic energy so that it can be distinguished as
speech, music, or noise.
• It also interprets words that are heard into an associated thought pattern of
understanding. The gnostic area of the cerebrum, (areas 5, 7, 39 and 40) helps to
integrate all incoming sense patterns so that a common thought can be formed
(correlated) using all arriving sensory information.
PROCESS OF EQUILIBRIUM
• Equilibrioception or sense of balance is one of the physiological senses. It allows humans
and animals to walk without falling.
• It is determined by the level of fluid properly called endolymph in the labyrinth - a complex
set of tubing in the inner ear.
• When the sense of balance is interrupted it causes dizziness, disorientation and nausea.
• You can temporarily disturb your sense of balance by closing your eyes and turning rapidly
in circles five or six times. This starts the fluid swirling in circles inside your ear canal. When
you stop turning it takes a few seconds for the fluid to lose momentum, and until then the
sense from your inner ear conflicts with the information coming from your vision, causing
dizziness and disorientation.
• Most astronauts find that their sense of balance is impaired when in orbit, because there is
not enough gravity to keep the ear's fluid in balance. This causes a form of motion sickness
called space sickness.
DISORDERS OF THE EAR
Deafness
• The first term is used to indicate the presence of enough hearing loss such that an individual is not
sensitive to sound. Someone with a partial loss of hearing is more likely to be referred to as hearing
impaired or the qualified partially deaf. The second term is used to indicate someone who was born
without the sense of hearing or total deafness.
Otitis Media
• An inflammation of the middle ear segment. It is usually associated with a buildup of fluid and frequently
causes an earache. The fluid may or may not be infected. The typical progress of otitis media is: the tissues
surrounding the Eustachian tube swell due to an infection and/or severe congestion.
• The Eustachian tube remains blocked most of the time. The air present in the middle ear is slowly
absorbed into the surrounding tissues. A strong negative pressure creates a vacuum in the middle ear. The
vacuum reaches a point where fluid from the surrounding tissues accumulates in the middle ear.
• Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are the most common bacterial causes of otitis
media. As well as being caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae it can also be
caused by the common cold.
DISORDERS OF THE EAR
Vertigo (dizziness)
• Vertigo, sometimes called a headrush, is a major symptom of a balance disorder. It is the sensation of spinning
while the body is stationary with respect to the earth or surroundings.
• With the eyes shut, there will be a sensation that the body is in movement, called subjective vertigo; if the eyes are
open, the surroundings will appear to move past the field of vision, called objective vertigo. The effects may be
slight. It may cause nausea or, if severe, may give rise to difficulty with standing and walking.
• Vertigo is usually associated with a problem in the inner ear balance mechanisms (vestibular system), in the brain,
or with the nerve connections between these two organs.
Motion sickness
• Motion sickness is a condition in which the endolymph (the fluid found in the semicircular canals of the inner ears)
becomes 'stirred up', causing confusion between the difference between apparent perceived movement (none or
very little), and actual movement.
• Depending on the cause, it is also referred to as seasickness, carsickness, airsickness, or spacesickness. Nausea is
the most common symptom of motion sickness. If the motion causing nausea is not resolved, the sufferer will
frequently vomit within twenty minutes. Unlike ordinary sickness, vomiting in motion sickness tends not to relieve
the nausea. If you don't want to consult a doctor, one common form of relief is to eat mints.