Psychological Research

PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
Scientific Method
Test Hypothesis Draw Report

Question Hypothesis
Conclusions Results
BASIC and APPLIED RESEARCH
 Basic Research: research conducted for the purpose of

advancing knowledge rather than for practical application
(typically three goals: description, explanation, prediction)
 Applied Research: research for the purpose of solving
practical problems (typically the fourth goal: to control
behavior)
Basic Concepts of Research
 Empirical Evidence and Operational Definitions
 Evidence based on observation of public phenomena
 Operational definition: a definition based on the procedures use to measure scientific phenomenon
 Theories and Hypotheses
 Tentative explanations of facts and relationships
 A prediction based on a theory to be tested
 Representativeness of Samples
 A group of people that are studied to learn about the entire population
 Importance of Replication in Research
 Studies must be repeated to prove their worth
Archival Research
 Archival research is a method of collecting data from sources that already exist. Common
examples of archival research sources are census records or survey data that was collected in the
past.
 Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper
clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
A systematic analysis of
horoscopes in the Australian Even seemingly-dull sources can be informative. A content
Brisbane Sun revealed themes analysis of obituaries of male and female managers in major
similar to those found 15 years newspapers in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland showed that
earlier in the Los Angeles Times: different terminology was used to describe men and women
Helplessness, Dependency, and after death. Men were more likely to be described as expert and
Blind Obedience to Authority. knowledgeable in their fields. Women were more often
described as skilled in interpersonal relations.
Svensen, S., & White, K. (1995). A content analysis
of horoscopes. Genetic, Social, & General Kirchler, E. (1992). Adorable women, expert men: Changing gender images of women and men
Psychology Monographs, 121(1), 5-38 in management. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 363-373.
Naturalistic Observation
Are males or females better at math?
Are males or females better singers? A Dramatic Example:

Does memory get worse with age?
Rosenhan (1973)
Do language abilities get worse with age? On Being Sane in Insane Places
Are old people more likely to be depressed?
Does the answer to the previous question depend on

culture?
Naturalistic Observation
 A study method that involves covertly or overtly watching subjects’ behaviors
in their natural environment, without intervention.
 Systematic observation in a natural setting.
A researcher interested in observing how many people come to a full and complete
child development receives stop at stop signs. The setup for this observation is
permission to observe fifth- simple enough; a researcher observes how long people
grade students through a stop at a stop sign. The researcher tests under two
one-way mirror during class conditions. Half the time, the researcher stands on an
time adjacent corner and is clearly taking notes, while the rest
of the time the researcher is relatively hidden in a nearby
building or vehicle.
Survey Research
 A survey is a method of collecting information directly from people about their ideas, feelings,
health, plans, beliefs, social background, educational level, and financial history.
 A survey can be a self-administered questionnaire or a survey can be an interview that is done
in person or on the telephone. Some surveys are on paper or disk and the respondent can
complete them privately at home or in a central location.
A company conducts a survey to find out whether people

would be interested in buying a new product and why. Employees of a company
Participants are asked how interested they would be in buying the product. receive a questionnaire
They make their judgments on a 10-point scale with the endpoints labeled on job satisfaction
"very unlikely" and "very likely." They also given a list of 20 possible
reasons for buying the product, and they are asked to indicate which of them
would be the reasons why they would buy the product.
Case Study
 Case study in psychology refers to the use of a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-
depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of techniques may be employed
including personal interviews, direct-observation, psychometric tests, and archival records.
 A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event.
One day in 1848 in Central Vermont, Phineas Gage was

tamping explosives into the ground to prepare the way for a
new railway line when he had a terrible accident. The
A research could conduct detonation went off prematurely, and his tamping iron shot into A researcher could
a study to investigate the his face, through his brain, and out the top of his head. conduct a study to
musical abilities of an Remarkably Gage survived, although his friends and family investigate the
individual with an reportedly felt he was changed so profoundly (becoming memory processes of an
exceptional ability listless and aggressive) that “he was no longer Gage.” There individual with an
to write songs. the story used to rest – a classic example of frontal brain exceptional
damage affecting personality ability to remember
things.
Correlational Research
 Study relationships between 2 (or more) variables
 It is important to note that correlation does not equal causation but can allow us to make
predictions.
 A correlation is simply defined as a relationship between two variables. The whole purpose of
using correlations in research is to figure out which variables are connected.
 Correlation coefficient is a numerical representation of the strength and direction of a
relationship.
Rise of violence in
Relationship between Relationship between
society along with the
goof-off hours and study hours and CGPA
rise of violent
CGPA
entertainment
Correlational Research
 Correlations vary in direction:
 Positive association: increases in the
value of variable 1 are associated
with increases in the value of variable
2
 Negative association: increases in
the value of variable 1 are associated
with decreases in the value of
variable 2
 No relation: values of variable 1 are
not related to variable 2 values
Experimental Research
 Involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable.
 The only research method that can be used to determine cause and effect
 Components of an Experiment
 Experimental group
 Receives treatment
 Control group
 Does not receive treatment, but is the same in every other way
 Independent Variable
 Cause (what you are studying)
 This is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter
 Dependent Variable
 Effect (result of experiment)
 This is the variable that is measured by the experimenter
 Random assignment or participants: A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or
“conditions” on the basisof chance and chance alone.
Quasi Experimental Design
 There is no random assignment of participants to groups

 Quasi-experiments contain a naturally occurring IV.
 In a quasi-experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people
that already exists (i.e. gender, age). The researcher examines the effect of this
variable on the dependent variable (DV).
 E.g. if we study the effect of maternal alcohol use when the mother is pregnant,
we know that alcohol does harm embryos
Critical Research Issues
Ethics in Research on Humans
 Protection of participants from physical and mental harm.
 Participants must be informed of nature of research
 Informed consent should be documented
 The assurance that participation in research is completely
voluntary.
 The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior.
 Risks and limits on confidentiality must be explained
 Deception involving participants must be justified
 Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to the
participants at the end of the study.
Ethics in Research on Animals
 Psychologists using animals must ensure “appropriate
consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, and human
treatment”
 Animals must not be exposed to pain, stress, or privation when
alternative procedures are available
 To help minimise the harm animals may experience while being
studied in the laboratory, researchers are required to follow a set
of principles, the ‘three Rs’. These are:
 Replace: Replacing, where possible, experiments using animals
with alternative techniques such as cell culture, computer modelling
or human volunteers instead of animals.
 Reduce: Reducing the number of animals used, by improving
experimental techniques and sharing information with other
researchers so that the same experiments aren’t being done by many
people.
 Refine: Refining the way the animals are cared for to help minimise
any stress or pain, by using less invasive techniques where possible
and improving medical care and living conditions.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL

Test Hypothesis Draw Report

 Basic Research: research conducted for the purpose of

Are males or females better at math?

Are males or females better singers? A Dramatic Example:

Does the answer to the previous question depend on

A company conducts a survey to find out whether people

One day in 1848 in Central Vermont, Phineas Gage was

 There is no random assignment of participants to groups

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