Bacterial Cell Structure

and Function
Mr. Hamse Muse Barud
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:
The chief distinguishing characteristics of
Prokaryotes:
1-Their DNA (genetic material) is not enclosed within a
membrane and is one circular chromosome.
2-Their DNA is not associated with histones (special
chromosomal proteins found in eukaryotes) other proteins
are associated with the DNA.
3-They lack membrane-enclosed organelles.
4- Their cell walls almost always contain the complex
polysaccharide peptidoglycan.
5-They usually divide by binary fission. During this
process, the DNA is copied and the cell splits into two
cells. Binary fission involves fewer structures and
processes than eukaryotic cell division.
4
The chief distinguishing characteristics of
Eukaryotes:
1. Their DNA is found in the cell’s nucleus, which is
separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear
membrane, and the DNA is found in multiple
chromosomes.
2. Their DNA is consistently associated with
chromosomal proteins called histones and with non
histones.
3. They have a number of membrane-enclosed
organelles, including mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosome, and sometimes
chloroplasts.
4- Their cell walls, when present, are chemically

simple.
5- They usually divide by mitosis, in which
chromosomes replicate and an identical set is
distributed into each of two nuclei. This process is
guided by the mitotic spindle, a football-shaped
assembly of microtubules. Division of the cytoplasm
and other organelles follows so that the two cells
produced are identical to each other.
The bacterial cell
 There are a great many sizes and shapes among bacteria.
Most bacteria range from 0.2-2.0 µm in diameter and from
2-8 µm in length. The shape of bacterium is determined
by heredity. Genetically, most bacteria are monomorphic.
 They have a few basic shapes:

A. Spherical coccus

B. Rod shaped bacillus

C. Spiral
 A- Spherical coccus:
 Cocci are usually round but can be oval, elongated, or flattened on
one side. When cocci divided to reproduce, the cells can remain
attached to one another:
1. Cocci that remain in pairs after dividing are called diplococci
2. Those that divided and remain attached in chain linke patterns are
called streptococci
3. Those that divided in two planes and remain in groups of four are
known as tetrads.
4. Those that divided in three planes and remain attached in cube
like groups of eight are called sarcinae
5. Those that divide in multiple planes and form grapelike clusters
or broad sheets are called staphylococci
B- Rod shaped bacillus:
Bacilli divide only across their
short axis,
1- Most bacilli appear as single
rods.
2- Diplobacilli appear in pairs

3- Streptobacilli occur in chains

4- Coccobacilli are oval and look

so much like cocci.

 C- Spiral :
1. have one or more twists; they are never straight.
Bacteria that look like curved rods are called vibrios.

2. Have ahelical shape, like a corkscrew, and fairly rigid

bodies.

3. Another group of spirals are helical and flexible, they

are called spirochetes.
Structures
 Glycocalyx: (meaning sugar coat) is the general term
used for substances that surround cells. The bacterial
glycocalyx is viscous, gelatinous polymer that is
external to the cell wall and composed of
polysaccharide, polypeptide, or both.
If the substances is organized and is firmly attached to
the cell wall, the glycocalyx is described as a capsule.
 Function of capsules:

1. Important in contributing to bacterial virulence.

2. Capsules often protect pathogenic bacteria from

phagocytosis by the cells of the host. Example, Bacillus
anthrax.
3. Help cell on biofilm attach to their target environment (such
as rocks-plant).

4. Source of nutrition by breaking it down and utilizing it when

energy stores are low.
If the substances is unorganized and only loosely attached to
the cell wall, the glycocalyx is described as a slime layer.
 Flagella
Are long filamentous appendages that propel
bacteria. Bacterial cells have four
arrangements of flagella:

A. Monotrichous (a single polar flagella)

B. Lophotrichous (a tuft of flagella at one

end of the cell)
C. Amphitrichous (flagella at each end of
the cell)

D. Peritrichous (flagella distributed over the

entire cell)
Flagella has three basic structure:
 Filament:
 Extend to exterior
 Made up of
flagellin protein
 Hook:
Curved sheath
Connect filament
to cell
 Basal body:
 Anchors
flagellum into cell
wall and membrane
Bacteria with flagella are motile;
that is, they have the ability to
move on their own. Flagellum is a
semi rigid, helical structure that
moves the cell by rotating from the
basal body. The movement of a
bacterium toward or away from a
particular stimulus is called taxis.
Such stimulus include chemicals
(chemotaxis) and light
(phototaxis).
Axial Filaments
Axial filaments or endoflagella, bundles of fibrils

that arise at the ends of the cell beneath an outer

sheath and spiral around the cell. Axial filaments
which are anchored at one end of the spirochete, have
a structure similar to that of flagella.
 Pili and fimbria
Fine, straight, hair-like appendages that are shorter straighter

and thinner than flagella, are used for attachment and transfer
DNA from one cell to another (called conjugation) rather than
for motility.

Composed of the protein pilin, are attached to the cell wall of

many Gram- negative bacteria. The number of fimbria more

than pili. they have different functions in pathogenic bacteria,
fimbria function can help bacteria to adhere on epithelial cell of
the host e.g. fimbria E.coli O157 enable this bacteria to adhere
to the lining of the small intestine.
Cell wall
The cell wall of bacterial cell is a complex ,semirigid

structure responsible for shape of bacteria , cell walls

of bacteria protect them from mechanical damage and
osmotic lysis.
 Function of cell wall
They are an essential structure for viability.
Responsible for the shape of the cell.
Protect the interior structure of the cell from adverse changes in outside
environment.
Prevent bacterial cell from rupturing when the water pressure inside the
cell is greater than that outside the cell.
Serve as a point of anchorage for flagella.
Contributes to the ability of some species to cause disease.
Site of action of some antibiotics.
Chemical composition of cell wall is used for differentiate major types of
bacteria.
They cause symptoms of disease in animals.
They play a role in cell growth.
They provide for immunological distinction and immunological variation
among strains of bacteria.
Peptidoglycan:
A polymer unique to prokaryotic cells, imparts rigidity
to the cell wall. This polymer is composed of chains of
alternating subunits of N-acetyleglucosamine and N-
acetylmuramic acid (glycan) crosslinked by short tetra
peptide side chains and peptide cross-bridges.
Bacteria can be divided into two major groups, Gram-
positive and Gram-negative on the basis of color when
stained by the Gram’s stain, this colour reaction is
determined by the composition of the cell wall.
Gram-positive bacteria which stain purple have
relatively thick uniform cell wall which is composed
mainly of peptidoglycan, teichoic acids {which is consist
from an alcohol (such as glycerol or ribitol) and
phosphate} and lipoteichoic acid.
Gram-negative bacteria, which stain red, have cell
walls with a more complex structure, consisting of an
outer membrane and a periplasmic space containing
small amount of peptidoglycan.
The outer membrane is a protein-containing
asymmetrical lipid bilayer. The structure of the inner
surface of the membrane resembles that of the
cytoplasmic membrane, whereas that of the outer
surface is composed of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
molecules. Low molecular weight substances such as
sugars and amino acids enter through specialized
protein channels, known as porins, in the outer
membrane.
The outer membrane LPS, the endotoxin of Gram-

negative bacteria, is released only after cell lysis. The

major components of LPS molecules are core
polysaccharide bound to lipid A and long external 0
polysaccharide side chain. The polysaccharide side
chains of the LPS molecules stimulate antibody
production and correspond to the somatic (O)
antigens used for serotyping of gram-negative cells.
Lipid A is the molecular component in which
endotoxic activity resides.
The mycoplasmas comprise an important group
of bacteria without cell walls. Conventional
bacteria, exposed to the action of antibiotics such
as penicillin, or other substances which interfere
with the synthesis of peptidoglycan, cannot
produce cell walls and are termed L form.
Grams stain = a differential stain procedure, different
results, + and (-)
Table: some comparative characteristics between Gram positive
and Gram negative bacteria
Plasma (Cytoplasmic) membrane
The cytoplasmic membrane of bacterial cells is flexible
structures composed of phospholipids and proteins. They
can be observed only by electron microscopy and are
structurally similar to the plasma membranes of
eukaryotic cells. However, bacterial cytoplasmic
membrane, (with the exception of those present in
mycoplasmas), do not contain sterol , and bacteria lack the
enzymes required for sterol biosynthesis.
The inner and outer faces of cytoplasmic membranes
are hydrophilic while the interior is hydrophobic,
forming a barrier to most hydrophilic molecules.
Only a limited range of small molecules such a water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide and some lipid-soluble
compounds can enter bacterial cells by passive
diffusion.
Bacterial membranes are composed of 40 percent

phospholipid and 60 percent protein.

The bilayer are various structural and enzymatic proteins

which carry out most membrane functions.

The arrangement of proteins and lipids to form a

membrane is called the fluid mosaic model.

Two type of protein molecule can be arranged in variety

ways : peripheral proteins ,integral proteins .

 Major functions of the cytoplasmic
membrane:
Protect the cytoplasm and inner structure of the cell.
Serve as a selective barrier through which material inter
and exit the cell (selective permeability).
Important to breakdown nutrients and the production of
energy as ATP.( contain enzymes )
Site of electron transport for bacterial respiration,
The active transport of nutrients into the cell and the
elimination of waste metabolites , require the expenditure
of energy.
Coordination of DNA replication and segregation with
septum formation and cell division
 Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm, which is enclosed by the cytoplasmic
membrane, is essentially an aqueous fluid containing
the nuclear material, ribosomes, nutrients and the
enzymes and other molecules involved in synthesis,
cell maintenance and metabolism. Storage granules
may be present under certain environmental
conditions, usually those unfavorable for bacterial
growth, these granules, which may be composed of
starch, glycogen, polyphosphate or other compounds,
(inclusion bodies).
 Ribosomes
A sit of protein synthesis, these structures are composed
of two subunit, which consist of protein and a type of
RNA called ribosomal RNA ( ribonucleoproteins) and are
up to 25 nm in size. Prokaryotes ribosome are called 70s
Ribosomes They consist of two subunits, a larger 50S
subunit and a smaller 30S subunits. The Svedberg (S) unit
which indicate the relative rate of during ultra- high
speed centrifugation. sedimentation rate, which is
dependent on both the size ,weight and shape of particle.
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is complexed with
many different proteins and accounts for about 80% of
the RNA of the cell. Smaller amounts of transfer RNA
(tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) account for the
remaining cellular RNA. Ribosomes may be present
either in the cytoplasm or or associated with the
inner surface of the cytoplasmic membrane. During
active bacterial growth and rapid protein synthesis
individual ribosomes are joined by mRNA into long
chains known as polysomes.
Nucleoid
The bacterial genome is composed of a single circular

chromosome containing double-stranded DNA

(bacterial chromosome) which carry all the
information required for the cell structure and
function. Bacterial chromosome are not surrounded
by nuclear envelope and dot contain histones. Because
of its length, the bacterial chromosome is extensively
folded to form a dense body which can be seen by
electron microscopy.
Plasmids – Extrachromosomal
DNA Small circular pieces of double –stranded DNA

which are separate from the genome, are capable of

autonomous replication. Copies of plasmids can be
transferred from cell to cell during binary fission or
through conjugation. Plasmid DNA may code for
characteristics such as antibiotic resistance and
exotoxin production.
Inclusion body:
Are several kinds of reserve deposits known
(inclusion bodies), or granules, in the bacterial
cytoplasm. These bodies are never enclosed by a
membrane and serve as storage vessels. Glycogen,
which is a polymer of glucose, is stored as a reserve of
carbohydrate and energy. Volutin, or metachromatic
granules, contains polymerized phosphate (poly
phosphate) can be used in synthesis of ATP.
Endospores
Dormant highly resistance bodies, termed
endospores, are formed by some bacteria to ensure
survival during adverse environmental conditions. The
only genera of pathogenic bacteria which contain
endospore-forming, are Bacillus and Clostridium.
Endospores, which are produced inside the bacterial
cell, show species variation in shape, size and position
within the mother cell (central, terminal,
subterminal).
Because of the resistance and impermeability of the
spore coat, special staining procedures which employ
heat are required to demonstrate endospores. the
resistant of endospores is attributed to their layered
structure, their dehydrated state, negligible metabolic
activity and high content of dipicolinic acid (DPA)
occurs in the spore wall with high amounts of calcium.
Because spore are thermostable they can be destroyed
by moist heat at 121c for 15 minutes.
If other environmental conditions including the
presence of adequate nutrients are favorable
germination will occur. the spore cortex and coat are
degraded ,water is absorbed, DPA is released and
outgrowth develops.
THE END