CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE

Points To Remember :

CELL THEORY :

Schieiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.

They proposed that the body of animal and plant are composed of cells and
product of cells.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) he modified and gives the final shape to the cell theory.
o All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
o All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS :

Represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO.

Smaller and multiply more rapidly than eukaryotic cells.
Four basic shape of bacteria are
o Bacillus (rod like)
o Coccus (spherical)
o Vibrio (comma shaped)
o Sprillum (spiral)
All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane.
There is no well defined nucleus.
Chromosome is single and circular, not enveloped by nuclear membrane.
Presence of many small, circular, extra chromosomal and self replicable DNA
called plasmid.
Plasmid provides unique characteristic to the bacteria.
One of the characteristic is antibiotic resistant.
No membrane bound cell organelles.
A specialized differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome is present.

Cell envelope and its Modifications :

Most prokaryotic cell have characteristic complex cell envelope.

The cell envelops consists of tightly bound three layer structure;
o The outermost glycocalyx.
o Middle cell wall
o Inner plasma membrane.
According to the nature of the cell wall and behavior towards the stain
developed by Gram, bacteria are Gram positive or Gram negative.
Glycocalyx may for a loose sheath called slime layer.
Glycocalyx may be thick and tough called the capsule.
The cell wall determines the shape of the cell, strong structural support to
prevent the bacterium from bursting and collapsing.
Plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature and interacts with outside world.
 A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by extensions
of plasma membrane into the cell.
o These extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
o They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to the
daughter cell.
o They also help in respiration and secretion.
Some bacteria have filamentous extensions called flagella.
Bacterial flagellum has three parts filament, hook and basal body.
Pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein.
Fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell. Play role in
adhesion.

Ribosome and inclusion bodies :

Ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.

Each ribosome (70 S) has two sub units; smaller (30 S ) and large (50 S).
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
Several ribosomes attached to a single mRNA to form a chain called
polyribosome or polysome.
Reserve materials are stored in the form of inclusion bodies.
Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules are the
inclusion bodies.

EUKARYOTIC CELL :

Eukaryotes include all the Protists, plants, animals and fungi.

Extensive compartmentalization due to membrane bound cell organelles.
Possess an organized nucleus with nuclear envelope.
Have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structure.
Genetic materials are organized into chromosomes.
The plant cell possess cell walls, plastids and a large central vacuole, which are
absent in animal cell.
Animal cells have centrioles which absent in plant cells.

Cell membrane :

The cell membrane composed of lipids that arranged in bilayer.

Lipids are arranged within the membrane with the hydrophilic polar head
towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
Non polar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous
environment.
The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phophoglycerides.
Cell membrane also possesses protein and carbohydrates.
Ratio of protein and lipids varies from cell to cell.
Human erythrocyte plasma membrane contains 52 % protein and 40 % lipids.
Membrane protein may be integral or peripheral.
 Peripheral protein lie on the surface and integral proteins are partially or totally
buried in the membrane.
The improved model of the structure of plasma membrane was proposed by
singer and Nicolson (1972) widely accepted as fluid mosaic model.
According to this the quasi fluid nature of lipid enables the lateral movement of
proteins within the overall bilayer.

Function :

Passive transport.
o Simple diffusion
o Facilitated diffusion.
Active transport.
Phagocytosis
Exocytosis.
Pinocytosis.

Cell wall :

A non-living rigid structure called cell wall present outside the plasma membrane of
plant and fungal cell.
Algae have a cell wall made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium
carbonate.
Plant cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins and proteins.
The cell wall of young plant is called primary cell wall.
On maturity secondary cell wall formed inner to it.
The middle lamella is a layer of calcium pectate which holds or glues the neighboring
cells.
The cell wall and middle lamella may traversed by plasmodesmata; the cytoplasmic
connection between two adjacent cell.

The endomembrane system :

Endoplasmic reticulum :

Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm, called

endoplasmic reticulum.
It divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments:
o Luminal (inside the ER)
o Extra luminal (cytoplasm).
The ER shows ribosomes attached to their outer surface called Rough Endoplasmic
reticulum (RER).
Endoplasmic reticulum without ribosome called SER (smooth endoplasmic reticulum)
Function:

RER present in the cell actively involved in protein synthesis.

SER is the site for synthesis of lipid, glycogen and steroid hormones.

Golgi apparatus:

Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed this organelle, and named after him.
It consists of many flat, disc shaped sacs or cisternae.
These are staked parallel to each other.
The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus with distinct convex
cisor the forming face and concave transor the maturing face.

Function:

Principally responsible for packing of materials to be delivered intra-cellular target or

intercellular target.
Materials are packed in the form of vesicles, from the ER fuse with the cis face of
the Golgi apparatus and move towards the trans face.
Important site for the formation of glycoprotein and glycolipids.

Lysosomes:

Membrane bound vesicular structure.

Formed by Golgi body.
Rich in all type hydrolytic enzymes, optimally active in acidic pH.
These enzymes are capable to digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.

Vacuoles:

The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.

It contains water, sap, excretory product.
Vacuole is bounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
In plant cells the vacuole can occupy 90% of the volume.
Tonoplast facilitates active transport of material from cytoplasm into the vacuole.
In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for excretion and osmoregulation.
In many protists, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.

Mitochondria:

The number of mitochondria varies according to the physiological activity of the cell.
Each mitochondrion is a double membrane bound structure with outer and inner
membrane, dividing its lumen into two aqueous compartments
o Outer compartment.
o Inner compartment.
 The inner compartment is called the matrix.
The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called the cristae towards the
matrix.
The cristae increase the surface area.
Two membranes have their own specific enzymes associated with the mitochondrial
function.
Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration.
They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence called power house of the
cell.
The matrix also possess single circular DNA molecule and a few RNA molecules,
ribosomes (70S), they synthesize their own protein.
Mitochondria divide by fission.

Plastids :

Plastids are found in all plant cells and in Euglenoids.

They bear some specific pigment, impart specific colour to the plants.
Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified into
o Chloroplast.
o Chromoplast
o Leucoplast.
The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments, traps solar energy for
photosynthesis.
In the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls are
present.
The leucoplasts are colourless plastids of varied shapes and size with stored nutrients.
o Amyloplast - store carbohydrates.
o Elaioplasts store oils and fats.
o Aleuroplast store proteins and minerals.
Chloroplasts are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
These are oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon like organelles.
Chloroplast is a double membrane organelle.
The space limited by inner membrane is called stroma.
A number of organized flattened membranous sacs called thylakoid are present in the
stroma.
Thylakoids are arranged like stakes of coins to form grana.
There are flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the
thylakoids of the different grana.
They thylakoids enclose a space called lumen.
Chlorophyll pigments are located in the thylakoids.
Chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and
proteins.
Stroma contains small circular DNA and ribosomes.
Ribosomes :

Ribosomes are granular structure first observed by George Palade (1953).

Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
Non-membranous cell organelles.
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
S stands for sedimentation coefficient; measure of density and size.
Both 70S and 80S ribosomes consists of two subunits.
Primary function is protein synthesis hence called protein factory of the cell.

Cytoskeleton :

An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the

cytoplasm is collectively known as cytoskeleton.
Cytoskeleton involved in many function such as mechanical support, motility,
maintenance of the shape of the cell.

Cilia and Flagella :

Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.

Cilia are small help in the movement of cell or surrounding fluid.
Flagella are longer and responsible for cell movement.
Cilia and flagella covered by plasma membrane.
Their core called axoneme, possess a number microtubules running parallel to the long
axis.
The axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially arranged peripheral
microtubules and a pair of centrally located microtubules.
The central tubules are connected by bridges and are also enclosed by a central
sheath, which is connected to one of the tubules of each peripheral doublet by radial
spoke.
The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers.
Both cilia and flagella emerge from centrioles-like structure called basal bodies.

Centrosome and centrioles :

Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called

centrioles.
They are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
Both centrioles in a Centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole has an organization like the cartwheel.
They are made of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin.
Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet.
The adjacent triplets are also linked to each others.
The central part of the centriole is called hub.
The hub connected to peripheral triplets by radial spokes.
The centriole forms the basal body for cilia, flagella and form spindle fibres during
cell division.
Nucleus :

Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown in 1831.

Materials inside the nucleus was stained by Flemming and named as chromatin.
The interphase nucleus has highly extended and elaborates nucleoprotein fibres called
chromatin.
The nucleus also contains nuclear matrix and one or two spherical bodies called
nucleoli.
Nuclear envelope consists of two membranes with perinuclear space (10- 50 nm).
The outer membrane remains continuous with endoplasmic reticulum.
Presence of nuclear pore due to fusion of two membranes.
Nuclear pores allow the movement of RNA and protein in both directions.
The nuclear matrix or nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
Nucleolus is the site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
During cell division the chromatins condensed to form chromosomes.
Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, non-histone
proteins and some RNA.
A single human cell contains approximately two meter long thread of DNA in 46
chromosomes.
Each chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere.
On each side of centromere there is disc shaped structures called kinetochores.
Based on the position of the centromere chromosomes are classified into four types:-
o Metacentric: centromere at the middle with two equal arms.
o Sub-Metacentric: one short arm and one long arm.
o Acrocentric: with extremely short arm and a very long arm.
o Telocentric: with terminal centromere.
A few chromosomes have non-staining constrictions at a constant location. This gives
the appearance of a small fragment called the satellite.