Functional Dependency &

Keys
 Definition
• A functional dependency A->B in a relation holds if two tuples having same value of attribute
A also have same value for attribute B.
• Let R be a relation schema
  R and   R
• The functional dependency

holds on R if and only if for any legal relations r(R), whenever any two tuples t1 and t2 of r agree
on the attributes , they also agree on the attributes . That is,
t1[] = t2 []  t1[ ] = t2 [ ]
• Example: Consider r(A,B ) with the following instance of r.
1 4
1 5
3 7

• On this instance, A  B does NOT hold, but B  A does hold.

Q1. Among the followings, Which Functional Dependencies are correct on
the basis of given table?

A. STUD_NO -> STUD_NAME

B. STUD_NO -> STUD_PHONE
C. STUD_NAME -> STUD_STATE
Q1. Among the followings, Which Functional Dependencies are correct on
the basis of given table?

A. STUD_NO -> STUD_NAME

B. STUD_NO -> STUD_PHONE
C. STUD_NAME -> STUD_STATE
Q2. From the following instance of a relation scheme R (A, B, C), we can
conclude that :
A B C
1 1 1
1 1 0
2 3 2
2 3 2
A. A functionally determines B and B function¬ally determines C
B. A functionally determines B and B does not functionally determine C
C. B does not functionally determine C
D. A does not functionally determine B and B does not functionally
determine C
Q2. From the following instance of a relation scheme R (A, B, C), we can
conclude that :
A B C
1 1 1
1 1 0
2 3 2
2 3 2
A. A functionally determines B and B functionally determines C
B. A functionally determines B and B does not functionally determine C
C. B does not functionally determine C
D. A does not functionally determine B and B does not functionally
determine C
Q3. Given the following relation instance.
x y z
1 4 2
1 5 3
1 6 3
3 2 2
Which of the following functional dependencies are satisfied by the instance?
A. XY -> Z and Z -> Y
B. YZ -> X and Y -> Z
C. YZ -> X and X -> Z
D. XZ -> Y and Y -> X
Q3. Given the following relation instance.
x y z
1 4 2
1 5 3
1 6 3
3 2 2
Which of the following functional dependencies are satisfied by the instance?
A. XY -> Z and Z -> Y
B. YZ -> X and Y -> Z
C. YZ -> X and X -> Z
D. XZ -> Y and Y -> X
 Use of Functional Dependencies

• We use functional dependencies to:

• test relations to see if they are legal under a given set of functional
dependencies.
• If a relation r is legal under a set F of functional dependencies,
we say that r satisfies F.
• specify constraints on the set of legal relations
• We say that F holds on R if all legal relations on R satisfy the set
of functional dependencies F.
 Types of Functional Dependencies
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is a non trivial functional dependency when Y is not a subset of X. 
X → Y is called completely non-trivial when X intersect Y is NULL.
• Semi Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is called semi non-trivial when X intersect Y is not NULL. 
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when _________________.
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is a non trivial functional dependency when___________. 
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is a non trivial functional dependency when Y is not a subset of X. 
X → Y is called completely non-trivial when_____________. 
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is a non trivial functional dependency when Y is not a subset of X. 
X → Y is called completely non-trivial when X intersect Y is NULL.
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is a non trivial functional dependency when Y is not a subset of X. 
X → Y is called completely non-trivial when X intersect Y is NULL.
• Semi Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is called semi non-trivial when____________________. 
• Trivial Functional Dependency
• Non Trivial Functional Dependency
• Semi Trivial Functional Dependency

• Trivial Functional Dependency 

X → Y is trivial only when Y is subset of X.
• Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is a non trivial functional dependency when Y is not a subset of X. 
X → Y is called completely non-trivial when X intersect Y is NULL.
• Semi Non Trivial Functional Dependencies 
X → Y is called semi non-trivial when X intersect Y is not NULL. 
 Example of Trivial, Non-Trivial and Semi
Non-Trivial Functional Dependencies
1. AB -> A
2. AB -> AD
3. AB -> AB
4. AB -> CD
Trivial Functional Dependencies –
Non-Trivial Functional Dependencies –
Semi Non-Trivial Functional Dependencies –
 Example of Trivial, Non-Trivial and Semi
Non-Trivial Functional Dependencies
1. AB -> A
2. AB -> AD
3. AB -> AB
4. AB -> CD

Trivial Functional Dependencies – 1, 3

Non-Trivial Functional Dependencies – 4
Semi Non-Trivial Functional Dependencies – 2
 Functional Dependency Set
Functional Dependency Set:  Functional Dependency set or FD set of a
relation is the set of all FDs present in the relation. For Example, FD set
for relation STUDENT shown in table 1 is:
{ STUD_NO->STUD_NAME,
STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE,
STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE,
STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
 Closure of Attribute Sets
• Given a set of attributes a, define the closure of a under F (denoted by
a+) as the set of attributes that are functionally determined by a under F

• Algorithm to compute a+, the closure of a under F

result := a;
while (changes to result) do
for each    in F do
begin
if   result then result := result  
end
Q4.
FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find
{STUD_NO}+ = ?
Q4.
FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}
Q4.
FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}

{STUD_STATE}+ = ?
Q4.
FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}

{STUD_STATE}+ = {STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY}

Q5. Let R = ABCDE is a relational scheme with functional dependency
set F = {A → B, B → C, AC → D}. The attribute closures of A and E are

A. ABCD, φ
B. ABCD, E
C. φ, φ
D. ABC, E
Q5. Let R = ABCDE is a relational scheme with functional dependency
set F = {A → B, B → C, AC → D}. The attribute closures of A and E are

A. ABCD, φ
B. ABCD, E
C. φ, φ
D. ABC, E
 KEYS
• Super Key
• Candidate Key
• Primary Key
• Foreign Key
• Alternate Key
• Composite Key
Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key
using Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R

FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,

STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find

{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = ?
 Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key
using Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R

FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,

STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find

{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,

STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE} 
Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key
using Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R
FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find
{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE,
STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE} 
{STUD_NO}+ = ?
Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key using
Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R
FD1 = { STUD_NO->STUD_NAME, STUD_NO->STUD_PHONE,
STUD_NO->STUD_STATE, STUD_NO->STUD_COUNTRY,
STUD_NO -> STUD_AGE, STUD_STATE->STUD_COUNTRY }
Using above functional dependency set FD1, find
{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE,
STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE} 
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}
Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key
using Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R
{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE,
STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE} 
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}
Super Key = ?
Candidate Key = ?
Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key
using Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R
{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE,
STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE} 
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}
Super Key = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}
Candidate Key = ?
Identifying Super Key and Candidate Key
using Functional Dependencies
• K is a super key for relation schema R if and only if K  R
• K is a candidate key for R if and only if
• K  R, and
• for no   K,   R
{STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE,
STUD_STATE, STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE} 
{STUD_NO}+ = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME, STUD_PHONE, STUD_STATE,
STUD_COUNTRY, STUD_AGE}
Super Key = {STUD_NO, STUD_NAME}
Candidate Key = {STUD_NO}
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J},
{E, H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate
key for R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J},
{E, H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate
key for R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J}, {E,
H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate key for
R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Explanation
{E,F}+ = ?
{E,F,H}+ = ?
{E,F,H,K,L}+ = ?
{E}+ = ? 
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J}, {E,
H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate key for
R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Explanation
{E,F}+ = {EFGIJ} 
{E,F,H}+ = ?
{E,F,H,K,L}+ = ?
{E}+ = ? 
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J}, {E,
H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate key for
R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Explanation
{E,F}+ = {EFGIJ} 
{E,F,H}+ = {EFHGIJKLMN} 
{E,F,H,K,L}+ = ?
{E}+ = ? 
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J}, {E,
H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate key for
R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Explanation
{E,F}+ = {EFGIJ} 
{E,F,H}+ = {EFHGIJKLMN} 
{E,F,H,K,L}+ = {EFHGIJKLMN} 
{E}+ = ? 
Q6. Consider the relation scheme R = {E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N}
and the set of functional dependencies {{E, F} -> {G}, {F} -> {I, J}, {E,
H} -> {K, L}, K -> {M}, L -> {N} on R. What is the candidate key for
R? (GATE-CS-2014) 
A. {E, F} 
B. {E, F, H} 
C. {E, F, H, K, L} 
D. {E} 
Explanation
{E,F}+ = {EFGIJ} 
{E,F,H}+ = {EFHGIJKLMN} 
{E,F,H,K,L}+ = {EFHGIJKLMN} 
{E}+ = {E} 
Q7. Which of the following is NOT a superkey in a relational schema
with attributes V, W, X, Y, Z and primary key VY ?

A. V X Y Z
B. V W X Z
C. V W X Y
D. V W X Y Z
Q7. Which of the following is NOT a superkey in a relational schema
with attributes V, W, X, Y, Z and primary key VY ?

A. V X Y Z
B. V W X Z
C. V W X Y
D. V W X Y Z
Q8. Let R = ( A, B, C, D, E, F ) be a relation scheme with the following
dependencies: C→F, E→A, EC→D, A→B. Which of the following is a key
of R?

A. CD
B. EC
C. AE
D. AC
Q8. Let R = ( A, B, C, D, E, F ) be a relation scheme with the following
dependencies: C→F, E→A, EC→D, A→B. Which of the following is a key
of R?

A. CD
B. EC
C. AE
D. AC
Q9. Let x, y, z, a, b, c be the attributes of an entity set E. If {x}, {x,y},
{a,b}, {a,b,c}, {x,y,z} are superkeys then which of the following are the
candidate keys?

A. {x,y} and {a,b}

B. {x} and {a,b}
C. {x,y,z} and {a,b,c}
D. {z} and {c}
Q9. Let x, y, z, a, b, c be the attributes of an entity set E. If {x}, {x,y},
{a,b}, {a,b,c}, {x,y,z} are superkeys then which of the following are the
candidate keys?

A. {x,y} and {a,b}

B. {x} and {a,b}
C. {x,y,z} and {a,b,c}
D. {z} and {c}
Identifying whether an FD can be derived
from a given FD set?
• To check whether an FD A->B can be derived from an FD set F, 
 
1.Find (A)+ using FD set F.
2.If B is subset of (A)+, then A->B is true else not true.
Identifying whether an FD can be derived
from a given FD set?
To check whether an FD A->B can be derived from an FD set F, 
• Find (A)+ using FD set F.
• If B is subset of (A)+, then A->B is true else not true.
Q10. In a schema with attributes A, B, C, D and E following set of functional
dependencies are given {A -> B, A -> C, CD -> E, B -> D, E -> A} 
Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT implied by the above
set? (GATE IT 2005) 
A. CD -> AC 
B. BD -> CD 
C. BC -> CD 
D. AC -> BC
Identifying whether an FD can be derived
from a given FD set?
To check whether an FD A->B can be derived from an FD set F, 
• Find (A)+ using FD set F.
• If B is subset of (A)+, then A->B is true else not true.
Q10. In a schema with attributes A, B, C, D and E following set of functional
dependencies are given {A -> B, A -> C, CD -> E, B -> D, E -> A} 
Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT implied by the above
set? (GATE IT 2005) 
A. CD -> AC 
B. BD -> CD 
C. BC -> CD 
D. AC -> BC
Identifying whether an FD can be derived
from a given FD set?
To check whether an FD A->B can be derived from an FD set F, 
• Find (A)+ using FD set F.
• If B is subset of (A)+, then A->B is true else not true.
Q10. In a schema with attributes A, B, C, D and E following set of functional dependencies are given {A -
> B, A -> C, CD -> E, B -> D, E -> A} 
Which of the following functional dependencies is NOT implied by the above set? (GATE IT 2005) 
A. CD -> AC 
B. BD -> CD 
C. BC -> CD 
D. AC -> BC
Explanation
Using FD set given in question, 
(CD)+ = {CDEAB} which means CD -> AC also holds true. 
(BD)+ = {BD} which means BD -> CD can’t hold true. So this FD is no implied in FD set. So (B) is the
required option. 
Q11. Consider a relation scheme R = (A, B, C, D, E, H) on which the
following functional dependencies hold: {A–>B, BC–> D, E–>C, D–
>A}. What are the candidate keys of R? [GATE 2005] 
(a) AE, BE 
(b) AE, BE, DE 
(c) AEH, BEH, BCH 
(d) AEH, BEH, DEH 
Q11. Consider a relation scheme R = (A, B, C, D, E, H) on which the
following functional dependencies hold: {A–>B, BC–> D, E–>C, D–
>A}. What are the candidate keys of R? [GATE 2005] 
(a) AE, BE 
(b) AE, BE, DE 
(c) AEH, BEH, BCH 
(d) AEH, BEH, DEH 
Answer: (AE)+ = {ABECD} which is not set of all attributes. So AE is
not a candidate key. Hence option A and B are wrong. 
(AEH)+ = {ABCDEH} 
(BEH)+ = {BEHCDA} 
(BCH)+ = {BCHDA} which is not set of all attributes. So BCH is not a
candidate key. Hence option C is wrong. 
So correct answer is D.
Q12. Finding Candidate Keys and Super Keys of a Relation using
FD set F1 = {E-ID->E-NAME, E-ID->E-CITY, E-ID->E-STATE, E-
CITY->E-STATE} .
Q12. Finding Candidate Keys and Super Keys of a Relation using FD set F1 =
{E-ID->E-NAME, E-ID->E-CITY, E-ID->E-STATE, E-CITY->E-STATE} .
Ans.
Super Key = {(E-ID), (E-ID, E-NAME), (E-ID, E-CITY), (E-ID, E-STATE), (E-ID, E-
CITY, E-STATE)}

Candidate Key = ?
Q12. Finding Candidate Keys and Super Keys of a Relation using FD set F1 =
{E-ID->E-NAME, E-ID->E-CITY, E-ID->E-STATE, E-CITY->E-STATE} .
Ans.
Super Key = {(E-ID), (E-ID, E-NAME), (E-ID, E-CITY), (E-ID, E-STATE), (E-ID, E-
CITY, E-STATE)}

Candidate Key = E-ID

Q13. R = (A, B, C, G, H, I)
F = {A  B, A  C , CG  H, CG  I, B  H}. Is AG a candidate key?
Ans. ?
Q13. R = (A, B, C, G, H, I)
F = {A  B, A  C , CG  H, CG  I, B  H}. Is AG a candidate key?
Ans. Yes
Q13. R = (A, B, C, G, H, I)
F = {A  B, A  C , CG  H, CG  I, B  H}. Is AG a candidate key?
Ans. Yes
Explanation:
1. Is AG a super key?
1. Does AG  R? == Is (AG)+  R (AG)+ = ABCGHI
2. Is any subset of AG a superkey?
1. Does A  R? == Is (A)+  R
2. Does G  R? == Is (G)+  R
 Prime and Non-Prime attributes
Attributes which are parts of any candidate key of relation are called as
prime attribute, others are non-prime attributes.
Example:
R = (A, B, C, D, E, H)
Candidate Keys – {AEH, BEH, DEH }
Prime Attributes – {A, B, D, E, H}
Non-Prime Attribute – {C}
 Properties of Functional Dependency
Let X, Y, and Z are sets of attributes in a relation R. There are several properties of
functional dependencies which always hold in R also known as Armstrong Axioms.
1.Reflexivity: If Y is a subset of X, then X → Y. e.g.; Let X represents {E-ID, E-
NAME} and Y represents {E-ID}.  {E-ID, E-NAME}->E-ID is true for the relation.
2.Augmentation: If X → Y, then XZ → YZ. e.g.; Let X represents {E-ID}, Y represents
{E-NAME} and Z represents {E-CITY}. As {E-ID}->E-NAME is true for the
relation, so { E-ID,E-CITY}->{E-NAME,E-CITY} will also be true.
3.Transitivity: If X → Y and Y → Z, then X → Z. e.g.; Let X represents {E-ID}, Y
represents {E-CITY} and Z represents {E-STATE}. As {E-ID} ->{E-CITY} and {E-
CITY}->{E-STATE}  is true for the relation, so { E-ID }->{E-STATE} will also be
true.
4.Attribute Closure: The set of attributes that are functionally dependent on the
attribute A is called Attribute Closure of A and it can be represented as A +.
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q14. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1,a2,a3} and a1 is the candidate
key. Then how many super keys are possible? 
Ans. ?
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q14. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1,a2,a3} and a1 is the candidate
key. Then how many super keys are possible?
Ans. 4 
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q15. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1,a2,a3} and a1 is the candidate
key. Then how many super keys are possible?
Ans. 4 
Explanation:
With the relation of Super Key and Candidate Key, any superset of
a1(Candidate Key) is the super key. 
Possible Superset of a1 = {a1, a1 a2, a1 a3, a1 a2 a3} 
So, Set of Super Keys = {a1, a1 a2, a1 a3, a1 a2 a3} 
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
In general, if we have ‘N’ attributes in a relation and there is one
candidate key with ‘M’ attributes, then the number of possible super
keys are 2(N – M).

Q16. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate key is “a1 a2 a3” then the possible number of super keys? 
Ans. ?
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
In general, if we have ‘N’ attributes in a relation and there is one
candidate key with ‘M’ attributes, then the number of possible super
keys are 2(N – M).

Q16. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate key is “a1 a2 a3” then the possible number of super keys? 
Ans. Possible Super Keys = 2(N-3)
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q17. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate keys are “a1”, “a2” then the possible number of super keys? 
Ans. ?
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q17. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate keys are “a1”, “a2” then the possible number of super keys? 
Ans. Possible Super Keys = (super keys possible with candidate key
A1) + (super keys possible with candidate key A2) – (common super
keys from both A1 and A2) 
Possible Super Keys = 2(n-1) + 2(n-1) - 2(n-2)

*Using Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q18. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate keys are “a1 a2”, “a3 a4” then the possible number of super
keys? 
Ans. ?
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q18. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate keys are “a1 a2”, “a3 a4” then the possible number of super
keys? 
Ans.
Possible Super Keys = Super keys of (a1 a2) + Super keys of (a3 a4) –
Super keys of(a1 a2 a3 a4)

Possible Super Keys = 2(n-2) + 2(n-2) - 2(n-4)

Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q19. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate keys are “a1”, “a2 a3” then the possible number of super
keys? 
Ans. ?
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q19. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…, an} and the
candidate keys are “a1”, “a2 a3” then the possible number of super
keys? 
Ans.
Possible Super Keys = Super keys of (a1) + Super keys of (a2 a3) –
Super keys of (a1 a2 a3) 
Possible Super Keys = 2(n-1) + 2(n-2) - 2(n-3)
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q 20. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…,an} and the
candidate keys are “a1”, “a2”, “a3” then the possible number of super
keys? 
Ans. ?
Number of Possible Super Keys in DBMS
Q 20. Let a Relation R have attributes {a1, a2, a3,…,an} and the candidate
keys are “a1”, “a2”, “a3” then the possible number of super keys? 
Ans.
Possible Super Keys = (super keys possible with candidate key A1) + (super
keys possible with candidate key A2) + (super keys possible with candidate
key A3) – (common super keys from both A1 and A2) – (common super keys
from both A1 and A3) – (common super keys from both A2 and A3) +
(common super keys from A1, A2, and A3)
Possible Super Keys = 2(n-1) + 2(n-1) + 2(n-1) – 2(n-2) – 2(n-2) – 2(n-2) + 2(n-3)
Q21. The maximum number of superkeys for the relation schema
R(E,F,G,H) with E as the key is _____________.
Ans. ?
Q21. The maximum number of superkeys for the relation schema
R(E,F,G,H) with E as the key is _____________.
Ans. 8
Q22. Relation R has eight attributes ABCDEFGH. Fields of R contain only
atomic values. F = {CH -> G, A -> BC, B -> CFH, E -> A, F -> EG} is a set of
functional dependencies (FDs). How many candidate keys does the
relation R have?
Ans. ?
Q22. Relation R has eight attributes ABCDEFGH. Fields of R contain only
atomic values. F = {CH -> G, A -> BC, B -> CFH, E -> A, F -> EG} is a set of
functional dependencies (FDs). How many candidate keys does the
relation R have?
Ans. 4 - {A, B, E, F}
Q23. Relation R has eight attributes ABCDEFGH. Fields of R contain only
atomic values. F = {CH -> G, A -> BC, B -> CFH, E -> A, F -> EG} is a set of
functional dependencies (FDs) so that F+ is exactly the set of FDs that
hold for R. How many candidate keys does the relation R have?
Ans. ?
 Closure of a Set of Functional
Dependencies
• Given a set F set of functional dependencies, there are certain other
functional dependencies that are logically implied by F.
• For e.g.: If A  B and B  C, then we can infer that A  C
• The set of all functional dependencies logically implied by F is the
closure of F.
• We denote the closure of F by F+.
 Closure of a Set of Functional
Dependencies
• We can find F+, the closure of F, by repeatedly applying
Armstrong’s Axioms:
• if   , then    (reflexivity)
• if   , then      (augmentation)
• if   , and   , then    (transitivity)
• These rules are
• sound (generate only functional dependencies that actually hold), and
• complete (generate all functional dependencies that hold).
Example:
• R = (A, B, C, G, H, I)
F={ AB
AC
CG  H
CG  I
B  H}
• some members of F+
• AH
• by transitivity from A  B and B  H
• AG  I
• by augmenting A  C with G, to get AG  CG
and then transitivity with CG  I
• CG  HI
• by augmenting CG  I to infer CG  CGI,
and augmenting of CG  H to infer CGI  HI,
and then transitivity
 Procedure for Computing F+
• To compute the closure of a set of functional dependencies F:
F+=F
repeat
for each functional dependency f in F+
apply reflexivity and augmentation rules on f
add the resulting functional dependencies to F +
for each pair of functional dependencies f1and f2 in F +
if f1 and f2 can be combined using transitivity
then add the resulting functional dependency to F +
until F + does not change any further
 Alternative Procedure for Computing F+
• For each   R, we find the closure +, and for each S  +, we output a functional
dependency   S.
algorithm (F)
/* F is a set of FDs */
1. F + = ∅
2. for each possible attribute set X
3. compute the closure X + of X on F
4. for each attribute A ∈ X +
5. add to F + the FD: X → A
6. return F +
Example: Assume that there are 4 attributes A, B, C, D, and that F = {A →
B, B → C}. To compute F+.
Q23. Relation R has eight attributes ABCDEFGH. Fields of R contain only
atomic values. F = {CH -> G, A -> BC, B -> CFH, E -> A, F -> EG} is a set of
functional dependencies (FDs) so that F+ is exactly the set of FDs that
hold for R. How many candidate keys does the relation R have?
Ans. ?
Q23. Relation R has eight attributes ABCDEFGH. Fields of R contain only
atomic values. F = {CH -> G, A -> BC, B -> CFH, E -> A, F -> EG} is a set of
functional dependencies (FDs) so that F+ is exactly the set of FDs that
hold for R. How many candidate keys does the relation R have?
Ans. 4
Armstrong’s Axioms in Functional
Dependency
Axioms –
1. Axiom of reflexivity –
If A is a set of attributes and B is subset of A, then A holds B. If B is subset of A, then A ->
B}. This property is trivial property.
2. Axiom of augmentation –
If A -> B holds and Y is attribute set, then AY -> BY also holds. That is adding attributes in
dependencies, does not change the basic dependencies. If A -> B}, then AC -> BC for any C.
3. Axiom of transitivity –
Same as the transitive rule in algebra, if A ->B holds and B -> C holds, then A -> C also
holds. A -> B is called as A functionally that determines B. If X -> Y and Y -> Z} , then X -> Z.
Following rules can be derived from the Armstrong’s axioms.
1. Union –
If A -> B holds and A -> C holds, then A -> BC holds. If X -> Y and X -> Z then X -> YZ
2. Composition –
If A -> B and X -> Y holds, then AX -> BY holds.
3. Decomposition –
If A -> BC holds then A -> B and A -> C hold. If X -> YZ then X -> Y and X -> Z hold.
4. Pseudo Transitivity –
If A ->B holds and BC -> D holds, then AC -> D holds. If X -> Y and YZ -> W then XZ -
> W}.
Canonical Cover of Functional Dependencies
• Sets of functional dependencies may have redundant dependencies
that can be inferred from the others
• For example: A  C is redundant in: {A  B, B  C, A C}

• Intuitively, a canonical cover of F is a “minimal” set of functional

dependencies equivalent to F, having no redundant dependencies or
redundant parts of dependencies
Canonical Cover of Functional Dependencies
Extraneous attributes: An attribute of a functional dependency is said to be extraneous if we
can remove it without changing the closure of the set of functional dependencies.
•Consider a set F of functional dependencies and the functional dependency    in F.
•Attribute A is extraneous in  if A  
and F logically implies (F – {  })  {( – A)  }.
•Attribute A is extraneous in  if A  
and the set of functional dependencies
(F – {  })  { ( – A)} logically implies F.
•Note: implication in the opposite direction is trivial in each of the cases above, since a
“stronger” functional dependency always implies a weaker one
•Example: Given F = {A  C, AB  C }
•B is extraneous in AB  C because {A  C, AB  C} logically implies A  C (I.e. the result of
dropping B from AB  C).
•Example: Given F = {A  C, AB  CD}
•C is extraneous in AB  CD since AB  C can be inferred even after deleting C
Canonical Cover of Functional Dependencies
Consider a set F of functional dependencies and the functional
dependency    in F.
• To test if attribute A   is extraneous in 
1. compute ({} – A)+ using the dependencies in F
2. check that ({} – A)+ contains ; if it does, A is extraneous in 
• To test if attribute A   is extraneous in 
1. compute + using only the dependencies in
F’ = (F – {  })  { ( – A)},
2. check that + contains A; if it does, A is extraneous in 
Canonical Cover of Functional Dependencies
• A canonical cover for F is a set of dependencies Fc such that
• F logically implies all dependencies in Fc, and
• Fc logically implies all dependencies in F, and
• No functional dependency in Fc contains an extraneous attribute, and
• Each left side of functional dependency in Fc is unique.
• To compute a canonical cover for F:
repeat
Use the union rule to replace any dependencies in F
1  1 and 1  2 with 1  1 2
Find a functional dependency    with an
extraneous attribute either in  or in 
/* Note: test for extraneous attributes done using Fc, not F*/
If an extraneous attribute is found, delete it from   
until F does not change
Canonical Cover of Functional Dependencies
Q12. Consider the following set F of functional dependencies:
F= {A -> BC, B -> C, A -> B, AB -> C}. Find the Canonical Cover.
Ans. ?
Q12. Consider the following set F of functional dependencies:
F= {A -> BC, B -> C, A -> B, AB -> C}. Find the Canonical Cover.
Ans. Steps to find canonical cover:
1. There are two functional dependencies with the same set of attributes on the left: A -> BC, A -> B
These two can be combined to get A -> BC.
Now, the revised set F becomes: F= { A -> BC, B -> C, AB -> C }
2. There is an extraneous attribute in AB -> C because even after removing AB -> C from the set F,
we get the same closures. This is because B -> C is already a part of F.
Now, the revised set F becomes: F= {A -> BC, B -> C}
3. C is an extraneous attribute in A -> BC, also A -> B is logically implied by A -> B and B -> C (by
transitivity).
F= {A -> B, B -> C}
After this step, F does not change anymore. So,
Hence the required canonical cover is: F= {A -> B, B -> C}