Analog Circuits - I
Analog Circuits - I
Analog Circuits - I
UNIT I
RC circuits Diode circuits Voltage regulators
0.7V 8V ID VR 2.2 K
0.7V 8V ID VR 2.2 K
8V ID
VR 2.2 K
8V ID
VR 2.2 K
Diode
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves.
Diode
Diode
Diode Biasing
Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its
way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).
Diode
Diode
Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect
diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Diode characteristics
Ideal Diode
Forward bias
R is Low
Reverse bias
R is High
Real Diode
Forward bias
Cell
Reverse bias
0V
5V
-5V
-3V
5V 5V 5V 0V 3V
5.1V
Diode application
It is useful in non linear wave shaping circuits. Commonly used circuits are
Clippers Clampers. Rectifiers
the output of a circuit from exceeding a predetermined voltage level without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
CLIPPING
A clipping circuit consists of linear elements like
resistors and non-linear elements like junction diodes or transistor. Clipping circuits are also called as Slicers, amplitude selectors or limiters. One of the most basic clipping circuit is the half-wave rectifier. A half-wave rectifier clips either the negative half cycle or the positive half cycle of an alternating waveform, and allows to pass only one half cycle.
Application of Clipping
Such a circuit has great applications in
radars, digital computers and other electronic systems for removing unwanted portions of the input signal voltages above or below a specified level. Another application is in radio-receivers for communication circuits where noise pulses that rise well above the signal amplitude are clipped down to the desired level.
Clipper Circuits
The basic components required for a
clipping circuit are an ideal diode and a resistor. In order to fix the clipping level to the desired amount, a dc battery must also be included. Different levels of clipping can be obtained by varying the amount of voltage of the battery and also interchanging the positions of the diode and resistor.
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Classification of CLIPPING
Classifications Of Clippers According to non-linear devices used,
classified as
Unbiased clippers and Biased clippers.
Classification of CLIPPING
According to configuration used the
Classification of CLIPPING
According to level of clipping the clippers
may be
Positive clippers Negative clippers Biased clippers and Combination clippers
Classification of CLIPPING
There are two types of clipper circuits
Series clipping Parallel clipping
between the input and output voltage terminals. Parallel clipping In these types of circuits, the diode is connected in parallel.
Positive Clipper
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Transfer Characteristics
Vm
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Clipper circuits
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small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the signal voltage is to be removed. When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be removed, it is called a biased negative clipper.
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Combination Clipper
When a portion of both positive and
negative of each half cycle of the input voltage is to be clipped (or removed), combination clipper is employed. The circuit for such a clipper is given in the figure below.
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Transistor Clipper
Transistor can be used to clip the I/P waveform. Positive clipper , negative clipper, Combinational
clipper can be designed using Transistor circuit. The practical circuit for positive and negative clipping is Transistor switching circuit. The practical circuit for obtain Double side clipping is Transistor amplifier circuit.
the resistance.
Lamp
Transistor as a Switch
Bipolar transistors can be made to operate as an
"ON/OFF switch. Because a transistor's collector current is proportionally limited by its base current, it can be used as a current-controlled switch. If the circuit uses the Transistor as a Switch, then the biasing is arranged to operate the transistor in the "Saturation" and "Cut-off" regions.
Transistor as a Switch
If we are using PNP transistor, Battery should be reversed.
Lamp
Saturation Region
Saturation" region Both junctions are Forward-biased. Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum
amount of base current is applied, resulting in Maximum collector current flow Minimum collector emitter voltage Here the transistor is switched fully "ON".
Simple Amplifier
VCC
RC RB
I/P
O/P
Amplifier Operation
LOAD LINE
VCC/ (RC+RE) Q POINT
ICQ
VCEQ
VCC
RC
I/P
O/P
DC Load Line
VCEQ
VCC
VCE sat=0.2
RB=VCC -VBE / 5 IB
0.2 V OUTPUT
VCC/(RC) Q POINT
VCEQ 0.2V
VCC
RC RB
O/P I/P
VCC/RC
Q POINT
VCC
VCE sat=0.2
RB=VCC -VBE / 5 IB
0.2V OUTPUT
VCC/(RC)
ICQ
VCC Q POINT
VCEQ
CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device that can store electrical charge. The simplest type is a "parallel plate " Capacitor that
consists of two metal plates that are separated by an insulating material. Capacitor is a two-terminal device. Capacitor has two active electrodes.
Anode Cathode
CAPACITOR
battery, the free electrons is accumulated in one plate of a capacitor. Similarly positive charges is accumulated to the another plate.
Charging of a Capacitor
If we quickly remove the wires without touching the
plates, the charge remains on the plates. Because the two plates have different charge, there is a net electric field between the two plates. The "capacitance" of a capacitor is stated in terms of the amount of charge (Q) stored at a given voltage drop (across the capacitor). C=Q/V C=A/d = 0 r
source. In the positive half cycle + ve charges were accumulated in one plate.
Clamping
The clamping circuit can shift the waveform to a
specified voltage level. Clamping circuit actually introduces a dc level to an AC signal. It is also known as DC restorer circuit. It is used in the television receiver to restore the original dc reference voltage to the video signal. In television system ,the dc reference level corresponding to the brightness level of the picture is not transmitted with video signal.
Clamping
A capacitor and a diode can be used to design
clamping circuits. Clamping can be classified in to +ve clamping -ve clamping Biased clamping circuits can be designed to clamp a waveform at a desired level
Problem
Draw the O/P/ wave form when the I/P is 20 Vpp
Vi=Vm Sint VO
Answer
10 V
-10 V
Problem
Draw the O/P/ wave form when the I/P is 20 Vpp and it contains a DC voltage of 2V
Vi=Vm Sint VO
Answer
10 V
2V
-10 V
Simple Clamping
V Battery
Vi=Vm Sint
+
VO
Answer
Vm+V
Vm-V
Simple Clamping
Vm
+
Vi=Vm Sint
VO
Answer
Vm-V
-V -Vm-V
Capacitor
+
Vi=Vm Sint
VO
Vm
Vm Vm
Vm+Vm
Capacitor
Vi=Vm Sint
+
VO
Vm+Vm
Vm+Vm
Problem
The I/p signal with 24 Vpp is applied to a clamper circuit. Sketch the O/P wave form Vm
Vi=Vm Sint
+
VO
Problem
The I/p signal with 24 Vpp is applied to a clamper circuit. Sketch the O/P wave form Vm
+
VO
Positive Clamping
Draw the o/p wave form Vm
+
VO
Vm+Vm
Negative Clamping
Draw the o/p wave form Vm
+
VO
Biased Clamper
The I/p signal with 24 Vpp is applied to a clamper circuit. Sketch the O/P wave form Vm
Vi=Vm Sint
+
5V
VO
Biased Clamper
Biased Clamper
Biased Clamper
Biased Clamper
RC Circuits
An RC circuit is simply a circuit with a
voltage source (battery) connected in series with a resistor and a capacitor. A resistor-capacitor circuit (RC circuit), or RC filter or RC network, is an electric circuit composed of resistors and capacitors driven by a voltage or current source. The 1st order RC circuit, composed of one resistor and one capacitor, is the simplest example of an RC circuit.
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RC Circuits
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RC Circuits
As with circuits made up simply of
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resistors, electrical currents can flow in this RC circuit, with one modification. A battery connected in series with a resistor will produce a constant current. The same battery in series with a capacitor will produce a time varying current, which decays gradually to zero. If the battery is removed and the circuit reconnected without the battery, a current will flow (for a short time) in the opposite direction as the capacitor "discharges". A measure of Deepak.P 04/21/12 how long these transient currents last in a
RC Circuits
Time Constant The time constant of an RC circuit is the
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product of its resistance and capacitance. For R in ohms and C in farads, the time constant t is in seconds. T = RC The range of frequencies that the filter passes is called its bandwidth. The point at which the filter attenuates the signal to half its unfiltered power is termed its cutoff frequency. This requires that the gain of the Deepak.P circuit be reduced to 04/21/12
RC Circuits
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RC Circuits
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RC Circuits
High Pass Filter A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to that
of Low Pass filter circuit, as now the two components have been interchanged with the output signal (Vout) being taken from across the resistor. Where the low pass filter only allowed signals to pass below its cut-off frequency point, c, the passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, only passes signals above the selected cut-off point, c eliminating any low frequency signals from the waveform.
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In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at Vin until the cut-off frequency point (c) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass directly to the output as shown below in the High Pass Frequency Response Curve.
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The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated as:
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high pass filter, is in audio amplifiers as a coupling capacitor between two audio amplifier stages and in speaker systems to direct the higher frequency signals to the smaller "tweeter" type speakers while blocking the lower bass signals or are also used as filters to reduce any low frequency noise or "rumble" type distortion. When used like this in audio applications the high pass filter is sometimes called a "low-cut", or "bass cut" filter.
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RC Differentiator
Each cycle of the square wave input waveform
produces two spikes at the output, one positive and one negative and whose amplitude is equal to that of the input. The rate of decay of the spikes depends upon the time constant, (RC) value of both components, (t = R x C) and the value of the input frequency. The output pulses resemble more and more the shape of the input signal as the frequency increases.
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RC Differentiator
From theory we know that the voltage
across the resistor in an RC circuit is given by: Charging: vR = Vp e- tRC Discharging: vR = - Vp e- tRC
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RC Integrator
From theory we know that the voltage
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RC Integrator
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RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
RECTIFIERS(Contd..)
Rectifiers can be divided in to two
Half wave Rectifiers Full wave Rectifiers
negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.
the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for halfwave rectification. Four rectifiers arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.
Bridge RECTIFIERS
Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
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Zener Regulator
Zener diodes are widely used as voltage
references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at that value.
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Zener Regulator
A Zener diode is a PN junction that has
been specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In breakdown the voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.
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Zener characteristic
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Zener Regulator
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Zener Regulator
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having three legs, converts varying input voltage and produces a constant regulated output voltage. They are available in a variety of outputs. The most common part numbers start with the numbers 78 or 79 and finish with two digits indicating the output voltage. The number 78 represents positive voltage and 79 negative one. The 78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. And the 79XX series is designed for Deepak.P 04/21/12 negative input.