Modulation and Coding

Techniques
II. DIGITAL Modulation
Engr. AdMer H. Cano Jr

2013
Grading System
LECTURE % LABORATORY %
1st Exam 10 Laboratory Exercise 50
2nd Exam 10 Project 50
3rd Exam 10
4th Exam 30
Quiz 15

Research 25
TOTAL 100 100

FINAL GRADE = 70% *LECTURE + 30%*LABORATORY

 Coverage
1st Exam
• Introduction to Digital Communications
• Digital Transmission
• PAM,PWM,PPM,PCM
2nd Exam
• Digital Modulation: ASK, FSK
• Bandwidth consideration for ASK, FSK, PSK,
QAM
 Digital Modulation
• is the transmission of digitally modulated
analog signals between two or more points in
a communications system
• uses digital modulating (information) signal
 Types of Signal Transmission

Analog Transmission Digital transmission

• Passband data • Baseband data
transmission transmission
• Data modulates high • Data is directly transmitted
frequency sinusoidal without carrier
carrier • Suitable for short distance
• Suitable for long distance transmission
transmission

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Analog Transmission

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 Data element vs. Signal element

• a data element (bit) is the smallest

quantity, that can represent a piece of
information

• a signal element (vehicle / carrier)

carries data elements (passengers) -
can contain one or more bits

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Bit and Baud

bit rate : the number of data elements

transmitted per second

baud rate : the number of signal

elements transmitted per second

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Bit and Baud

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Data (bit) rate vs. Signal (baud) rate

• r = the number of data elements (bits)

carried by each signal element.
• N = bit rate
• S = baud rate
• S = N / r in bauds
• r = log2 L
where L is the type of signal element
in analog transmission, S ≤ r

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Example 1

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal

element. If 1000 signal elements are
transmitted per second, find the bit rate.

Solution

r=4
S = 1000
N = S x r = 4000 bps

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Example 2

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a

baud rate of 1000 baud.
How many data elements are carried by each signal
element ? How many signal elements do we need?

Solution
N = 8000 L = 2^r
S = 1000 L = 2^8
r = (N ÷ S) = 8 L = 256

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Analog Transmission

• three mechanisms of modulating digital data

into an analog signal by altering any of the
three characteristics of analog signal:

amplitude → ASK : amplitude shift keying

frequency → FSK : frequency shift keying
phase → PSK : phase shift keying

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Types of Analog Transmission

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 Amplitude-Shift Keying
• the simplest digital modulation technique
where a binary information signal directly
modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier.
• given in mathematical terms as:

– Vask(t) is amplitude-shift keying wave,

– vm(t) is digital modulation (modulating) signal in volts,
– A/2 is unmodulated carrier amplitude in volts
– ωc is analog carrier radian frequency in radians per second.
 Amplitude-Shift Keying
• the modulating signal vm(t) is equal to:
 +1V for logic 1
 -1V for logic 0.
• sometimes referred as on-off keying (OOK).
Baseband
Data
1 0 0 1
ASK
modulated
signal
Acos(t) Acos(t)
 Amplitude-Shift Keying
 several levels of signal elements, each with a different
amplitude.
Multi-level ASK (MASK)

• 4, 8,16 … amplitudes can be used for the

signal

• data can be modulated using 2, 3, 4 … bits

at a time

• in such cases, r = 2, r = 3, r = 4, ….

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Multi-level Amplitude Shift Keying

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Example 3

Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal

transmitting at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-
duplex.

Solution

In ASK: baud rate = bit rate

 Therefore, baud rate = 2000bps.

in ASK: minimum bandwidth =baud rate.

 Therefore, minimum bandwidth = 2000 Hz.
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Example 4

Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an ASK signal, what

are the baud rate and bit rate?

Solution

Since baud rate = bandwidth in ASK,

 baud rate = 5000 bps.

And baud rate = bit rate,

 Therefore, bit rate = 5000 bps.
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ASK : implementation

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ASK Merits
• transmitter and receiver are simple to design.
• needs less bandwidth than FSK.

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ASK Demerits
• transmission can be easily corrupted by noise.
• Susceptible to sudden gain changes
• Inefficient

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ASK Application
• Early telephone modem.
• Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

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Frequency Shift Keying
• frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent data
• frequency of the modulated signal is
constant for the duration of one signal
element and changes for the next signal
element if the data element changes
amplitude
• Amplitude and Phase remain constant for
all signal elements
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 Frequency Shift Keying
• given in mathematical terms as:

Vc is peak analog carrier amplitude in volts,

Fc is analog carrier center frequency in hertz,
f is peak change or shift in the analog carrier frequency
vm(t) is binary input(modulating) signal in volts.
for logic 1, vm(t) = +1
for logic 0, vm(t) = -1
Frequency Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
• frequency deviation
– defined as the difference between either the mark
or space frequency and the center frequency
– half the difference between the mark and space
frequencies.
– can be expressed as
• f = |fm – fs | / 2 or
• 2f = |fm – fs |
Frequency Shift Keying
• The baud for BFSK is determined by placing N =
1, i.e., baud = fb/1 = fb
• The minimum bandwidth for FSK is determined
from;
B = |(fs - fb) - (fm - fb)|
= |fs - fm| + 2fb ……but |fs - fm| = 2 f,
B = 2( f + fb), where
B is minimum Nyquist bandwidth in hertz
f is frequency deviation
fb is input bit rate.
Modulation Index

∆f = frequency deviation
fa = modulating frequency

fb = input bit rate

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Binary FSK : implementation
• use of a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)
• VCO changes its frequency according to input
voltage

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Merits and Demerits

• it requires synchronizing circuits and is

therefore more expensive to implement.

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Example 6

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1?
Solution

Fc = 250 kHz.(midband) We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz;

5.34 34
Example 7

We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3

Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth.
Solution

 Level = 2^3 = 8
 Baud rate = signaling rate/bits = 3Mbps/3 = 1Mbps
 Bandwidth = 8 x 1Mbps = 8 Mbps

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Phase Shift Keying
• Phase of the carrier signal is varied to
represent two or more different signal
elements
• amplitude and frequency remain constant.
• Also called biphase modulation or phase-
reversal keying (PRK).

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Phase-Shift Keying
Binary PSK : implementation

the digital signal used here is polar NRZ

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Summary
Constellation diagram
• Helps defining the amplitude and phase of
a signal element.
• Signal element type is represented as a dot.
• The bit or combination of bits it carries is
written next to the dot.
• diagram has two axes
X-axis → related to the in-phase carrier
Y-axis → related to the quadrature carrier

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Constellation diagram

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Constellation diagram
• Binary PSK

P = 180 P=0

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M-ary Encoding

• M represents the number of possible of condition

 Ex. M= 4, 8

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Quadrature PSK
• use of two bits at a time in each signal
element → decrease of baud rate →
reduction of required bandwidth

• uses two separate BPSK modulations :

one in-phase and the other out-of-phase
(quadrature)

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Quadrature PSK

P = 90 P = 180 P = 180 P = 270 P=0

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Constellation diagram

• 4-PSK characteristics

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Quadrature PSK: implementation

serial to
parallel
converter

serial to parallel converter sends one bit to one

modulator and the next bit to the other modulator

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8 PSK: waveform

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Constellation diagram
• 8-PSK characteristics

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Comparison!!

A = √2
P = +45

A=1 A=1
P = 180 P=0

ASK BPSK QPSK

uses only an
in-phase carrier

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Differential PSK

– Phase shifted relative to previous

transmission rather than some
reference signal
– eliminates the need for the
synchronous carrier in the
demodulation process and this has
the effect of simplifying the receiver.

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Differential PSK

– receiver only needs to detect

– phase changes.

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

• small differences in phase are difficult to

detect (PSK)
• QAM works on the basis of altering two
characteristics of the carrier :
amplitude and phase
• two carriers, one in-phase and another
quadrature with two different levels are used

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
also used for many wireless and cellular technology applications.

• Wi‐Fi
• Cable modems
• Digital Video Broadcast (DVB)
• WiMAX.

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The 4-QAM and 8-QAM constellations

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Time domain for an 8-QAM signal

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16-QAM constellations

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Bit and Baud rate comparison
Modulation Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit Rate

ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N

4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N
16-QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N
32-QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N
64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N
128-QAM Septabit 7 N 7N
256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N

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Example 8

A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced

points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?

Solution

The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45

degrees apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with
each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud

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Example 9

Compute the bit rate for a 1000-baud 16-QAM signal.

Solution

A 16-QAM signal has 4 bits per signal unit since

log216 = 4.
Thus,
(1000)(4) = 4000 bps

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Example 10

Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.

Solution

A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since

log2 64 = 6.
Thus,
72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud

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Digital Transmission

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Digital Transmission

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Digital to Digital Conversion

• Also known as Line Techniques:

Encoding • Line coding
• Baud rate determine the • Block coding
bandwidth • Scrambling

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Digital Transmission Methods
• Nonreturn to Zero • Return to zero
• Unipolar • Unipolar
• Bipolar • Bipolar
• Bipolar-AMI
• Manchester

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Nonreturn to Zero
• the signal remains at the binary level assigned to it for the
entire bit time.
• the voltage does not return to zero during the binary 1
interval
• normally generated inside computers, at low speeds, when
asynchronous transmission is being used.

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 Nonreturn to Zero - Bipolar
• A bipolar NRZ signal has two polarities, positive and
negative.
• The voltage levels are +12 and -12 V.
• The popular RS-232 serial computer interface uses bipolar
NRZ, where a binary 1 is a negative voltage between -3 and
-25 V and a binary 0 is a voltage between +3 and +25 V.

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 Return to Zero - Unipolar
• The binary 1 level occurs for 50 percent of the bit interval,
and the remaining bit interval is zero.
• Only one polarity level is used.
• Pulses occur only when a binary 1 is transmitted; no pulse is
transmitted for a binary 0.

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 Return to Zero - Bipolar
• A 50 percent bit interval 13-V pulse is transmitted during a
binary 1, and a 23-V pulse is transmitted for a binary 0.
• Because there is one clearly discernible pulse per bit, it is
extremely easy to derive the clock from the transmitted data.
• For that reason, bipolar RZ is preferred over unipolar RZ.

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Return to Zero – Bipolar AMI
• During the bit interval, binary 0s are transmitted as no pulse.
• Binary 1s, also called marks, are transmitted as alternating
positive and negative pulses.
• One binary 1 is sent as a positive pulse, the next binary 1 as
a negative pulse, the next as a positive pulse, and so on.

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Manchester
• Also referred to as biphase encoding, can be unipolar or
bipolar.
• A binary 1 is transmitted first as a positive pulse, for one half
of the bit interval, and then as a negative pulse, for the
remaining part of the bit interval.
• A binary 0 is transmitted as a negative pulse for the first half
of the bit interval and a positive pulse for the second half of
the bit interval

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Manchester
• The fact that there is a transition at the center of each 0 or 1
bit makes clock recovery very easy.
• However, because of the transition in the center of each bit,
the frequency of a Manchester-encoded signal is two times
an NRZ signal, doubling the bandwidth requirement.
• It is widely used in LANs.

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Reference
• Data Communication
– by Forouzan
• Advance Electronic Communication
– by Robert Tomasi

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