Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA)
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Environment and Ecology

Environment
 Everything which surrounds us may be
collectively termed as environment.
 It is from the environment that we get food

to eat, water to drink, air to breathe and all

the basic necessities required for day to day
living.
 The environment therefore can be said to

constitute as "Life support system".

…Environment
 There are four basic components of natural
environment:
 Atmosphere or the air.
 Hydrosphere or the water.
 Lithosphere or the rocks and soil.
 Biosphere or the living component of the

environment.
Environment _ Atmosphere
I. Atmosphere - this consist of a complex mixture of
a number of gases, water vapor and a variety of
fine particulate material.
Importance of atmosphere
 Create conditions suitable for the healthy
existence of the biosphere.
 Regulates the temperature of the earth.(How?)
 Harmful ultraviolet rays are absorbed in the

stratosphere by the vital ozone layer.

 Transfer, transport and distribution of gaseous

wastes.
Environment _ Hydrosphere
II. Hydrosphere:
 Over 72% of the earth’s surface is covered by

water.
 Out of the 72% of the earth’s surface water:
97.2% is in the ocean, unfit for human
consumption, and too salty for irrigation and
drinking without desalination, at present too
expensive to consider.
 Another 2% of the whole water lies frozen in

glaciers and ice caps, and is useless.

 The tiny usable portion left, that is about 0.8% of

the total is neither evenly distributed nor properly

used.
Importance of water

 Without water life as it exist on planet is

impossible.
 Water is an important medium in which all

biochemical reaction within the environment

occurs.
 The availability of water determines the nature

composition and abundance of vegetation and

other forms of terrestrial life.
 Water vapor plays an important role in

regulating the temperature of the earth's crust.

(How?)
 Water support vegetation.
Environment _ Lithosphere
III. Lithosphere or Rocks & Soil - The
lithosphere can be broadly in two categories
A) Rocks B) Soil.
Importance of soil to the Biosphere
 Soil provides mechanical support to the plants.
 The porosity and moisture holding capacity of the

soil enables fit to retain rain water.

 Soil contain organic matter such as nitrifying

bacteria, some microbes fungi and protozoan‘s to

maintain in fertility for plants and Vegetation to
flourish.
Environment _ Biosphere
IV. Biosphere: - This forms a thin crust of
living beings over the surface of the earth.
The biosphere includes most of the
hydrosphere and parts of the lower
atmosphere and upper lithosphere.
Ecology
 The word ecology means a study of animal

and plants in their relations to each other

and to their environment.
 Ecosystem: An interconnected community

of living things, including humans, and the

physical environment in which they
interact.
 Within the ecosystems organisms interact

with one another and with their physical

environment in various ways.
 …Ecology
 On the basis of this interaction the biotic community can be
grouped into following :-
a) Producers: i.e. green plants which absorb carbon dioxide
mineral nutrients and water and release oxygen required for
other living things on earth.
b) Consumers: producers are consumed by herbivorous animals
that in turn are consumed by carnivorous animals or the
secondary consumers. This establishes a chain known as the
food chain.
c) Decomposers: - the facial matter excreta of animals, plants
and humans and other dead organisms are decomposed by
the activity of bacterial fungi and other small organism which
thrive on decaying organic matter. The decomposers are
important because they "bring the constituent elements of
plants and animal bodies back to the surrounding medium or
soil.
…Ecology
 However many human activities have had a
negative effect on the biosphere.
 The illegal dumping of wastes, burning of

fossil fuels, mining and extraction of resource

has led to the pollution of air, water and soil.
 Enormous increase in human population

raised the demand for development and

increased the consumption of various natural
resources resulting in environmental
deterioration.
…Ecology
 This highlights the need to place
environmental/ecological considerations at
the centre of our growth model and take a
sustainable development path.
 To this end, Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) is an instrument for
integrating such considerations into our
economic development efforts.
1.2. Climate Change Impacts on the Environment

1.2.1. Climate and Climate Change

 Climate refers to the average, or representative,
weather conditions observed over a long period of
time for a given area.
 Climate change is the long-term change in global

weather patterns, associated especially with increases

in temperature, precipitation, and storm activity.
 Climate change is a long-term shift in the climate of

a specific location, region or planet. The shift is

measured by changes in features associated with
average weather, such as temperature, wind patterns
and precipitation.
1.2.2. Causes of Climate Change

 If the amount of energy stored or received in the climate

system changes, then climate changes occur as well.
 The climate changes can be caused by natural processes

like volcanic eruptions, variations in the sun's intensity,

or very slow changes in land surfaces which occur on
time scales of decades, centuries or longer.
 But, humans also cause climates to change by releasing

greenhouse gases and aerosols into the atmosphere, by

changing land surfaces, and by depleting the
stratospheric ozone layer.
 Both natural and human factors that can cause climate

change are called ‘climate forcing', since they push, or

‘force' the climate to shift to new values.
1.2.3. Greenhouse gases and their effect

What are greenhouse gases?

 Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are often

called greenhouse gases.

 These gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere

freely. When sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface,

some of it is reflected back towards space as
infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases
absorb this infrared radiation and trap the heat in
the atmosphere.
 Many gases exhibit these “greenhouse” properties.

Some of them are: water vapor, carbon dioxide,

methane, and nitrous oxide.
What is the greenhouse effect?

 The "greenhouse effect" is the heating of the Earth due

to the presence of greenhouse gases.
 The Sun emits energy in the form of visible light and

ultra-violet (UV) radiation, which travels towards the

Earth. Some of this energy is absorbed by the
atmosphere and some is reflected by the clouds back
into space. The rest heats the Earth’s surface.
 The Earth is much cooler than the Sun and reradiates

this heat as infra-red (IR) radiation.

 Some of this IR radiation is trapped by greenhouse

gases in the atmosphere, making the Earth warmer

than it would be without an atmosphere. This is called
the greenhouse effect, and is shown in Figure 1.
…What is the greenhouse effect?

Figure 1: Representation of the greenhouse effect

Are they (Greenhouse gases) life givers
or life takers?
…Are they (Greenhouse gases) life givers or life takers?

 The gases that make life on Earth possible now

threaten our very existence.
 Greenhouse gases heat up our planet. They are

part of Earth's atmosphere and trap warmth

emitted by the sun, thus heating Earth. It is this
process – the greenhouse effect – that makes life
on the planet possible.
 Without them, the world’s average surface

temperature would be a unpleasantly cold -18

degrees Celsius. Thanks to the greenhouse effect,
however, we enjoy an average temperature of 14
degrees.
…Are they (Greenhouse gases) life givers or life takers?

 Many of these gases are naturally occurring

and are essential to life on earth by
providing a blanket for marine and
terrestrial organisms.
 Without them, temperatures on earth would

be intolerably cold.
 However, when their concentrations become

too high, they may contribute to global

warming to such an extent that they would
make the earth intolerably hot.
…Are they (Greenhouse gases) life givers or life takers?

 Nature has maintained these gases in the

'tolerable' range for billions of years, but
human activities have been changing the
concentrations of these gases since the start
of the industrial revolution, around 1850.

 The atmospheric concentrations of

greenhouse gases have been increasing, due
to anthropogenic activities.
1.2.4. Climate change impacts

 The effects of climate change include variations in

temperature, which could lead to change in rainfall
patterns, sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, loss of
biodiversity, drought, habitat loss, and freshwater
depletion and pollution…
 Evidence indicates that human-induced climate

change, if allowed to continue unabated, could have

profound consequences for the economy and the
quality of life of future generations.
 Climate change will have wide-ranging effects on the

environment, and on socio-economic and related

sectors, including water resources, agriculture and
food security, human health, terrestrial ecosystems
and biodiversity and coastal zones.
…Climate change impacts
 Ecological systems are changing, disturb,

and modified as a result of climate change.

 About 20–30% of plant and animal species

assessed so far are likely to be at increased

risk of extinction if increases in global
average temperature exceed 1.5–2.5°C.
 The health challenges include increased

global distribution of tropical diseases, such

as malaria.
…Climate change impacts
 The direct effects of climate change that are best
understood are the impacts of temperature, the
hydrological cycle, and sea-level rise.
 A major indirect effect of climate change on

agriculture will be the lower availability of

irrigation water. political and military conflict
between countries whose water systems are
interdependent.
 The indirect impacts of decreased rainfall and the

increased frequency of droughts will drive up

wildfire risk and, even in the short-term, change the
distribution of pests.
1.2.5. Aactions can be taken to avoid or reduce the impacts of climate change

 With respect to global warming and climate

change, there are two risk management
strategies that are frequently discussed in the
literature—these are mitigation and
adaptation.

What is the difference between mitigation and

adaptation?
...Aactions can be taken to…
 Mitigation strategies are those that are concerned
with taking actions that are aimed at reducing the
extent of global warming and climate change.
 For instance, mitigation strategies might include

measures that reduce anthropogenic sources of

climate change (limiting greenhouse gas emissions
relating to fossil-fuel combustion, or deforestation).
 Adaptation strategies are aimed at decreasing

vulnerability to global warming and climate change.

 Adaptation solutions include insulating buildings for

heat-related illness and constructing strong sea

walls.
1.3. Sustainable Development

1.3.1. Concepts of sustainable development

 Sustainable development is a form of
development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
 Sustainable development requires
consideration of the economic, social and
environmental benefits and costs from
proposed projects, and planning to mitigate
negative impacts.
…sustainable development
 The objectives of sustainable development
include promoting economic growth
consistent with rational energy use and
minimizing negative environmental
impacts; provide the current generation
with employment and basic needs such as
food, clean drinking water and sanitation;
integrating economic and environmental
decision making processes and considering
the needs of future generations.
…sustainable development
 This model for development rapids governments
to ensure that each generation passes on to the
subsequent generation an environment in no
worse condition than what was inherited.
 The EIA process is crucial in facilitating this

sustainability objective.
…sustainable development
 Unlike conventional economic development, sustainable
development focuses on the quality of development and
the needs of future generations rather than just
economic growth.
 It requires a change in the content of growth.
Sustainability requires views of human need and well-
being that incorporate such non-economic variables as
education and health, clean air and water and the
protection of natural beauty’.
 This view of the paradigm for development focuses on
protecting human health by governments adopting a
more careful approach (the precautionary principle) to
the regulation of development projects, an activity that
can have significant health and environmental impacts.
…sustainable development
 Sustainable development can minimize
environmental degradation by imposing an
obligation on polluters to pay for the
environmental damage caused by their activities.
 This includes mitigating the negative
environmental and social impacts.
 Sustainable development challenges governments

and developers to consider and plan for the needs

of both current and future generations by
protecting renewable natural resources such as
water, soil and air, and conserving non-renewable
mineral resources.
 …sustainable development
 Environmental sustainability encompasses the following
constituent components:
Ecological sustainability: It is a capacity of ecosystems to
maintain their essential functions and processes, and retain their
biodiversity in full measure over the long-term.
Social sustainability: Reflects the relationship between
development and social norms: an activity is socially sustainable
if it conforms to social norms, or does not stretch them beyond
the community’s tolerance for change.
Economic sustainability: Economic sustainability requires that
the different kinds of capital (resources) that make economic
production possible must be maintained or improved.
…sustainable development
 Major obstacles to sustainable development include:
 lack of agreement on what should be done;
 resistance by interest groups who feel threatened by

change, and
 uncertainty about the costs and benefits of

alternatives.
 Overcoming these obstacles requires:
 public discussion,
 negotiation and
 mediation among interest groups, and
 development of a political consensus.
1.3.2. Key principles of sustainable development

 Anticipating and preventing problems is better

than trying to react and fix them after they occur.
 Accounting must reflect all long-term and
economic costs, not just those of the current
market.
 The best decisions are those based on sound,

accurate, and up-to-date information.

 We must live off the interest our environment

provides and not destroy its capital base.

 The quality of social and economic development

must take preference over quantity.

1.4. Environmental problems

 Environmental problems can vary from the direct

effects of the pollution of waterways and the air,
through to indirect effects such as health problems
caused by changes, lifestyle or earthquakes resulting
from the construction of large dams.

 Some environmental problems may appear to be

insignificant when considered within an individual
proposal but might have adverse consequences if the
effects of all such proposals are added together
(cumulative effects).
…Environmental problems
 Examples of such cumulative effects are:
 Pollution due to automobile use and
 deforestation resulting from the gathering of

firewood for domestic purposes

 In order to manage environmental problems

it is necessary to have an understanding of

environmental impacts and the different
ways in which they can vary.
Impacts can vary in:

1.Type and nature:

 Impacts can vary in type from biophysical
through to the social, health or economic.
 They may also vary in nature, being
direct or indirect, cumulative, synergistic,
etc
2. Magnitude:
 In terms of their consequences impacts
can range from insignificant (no need for
remedial action) to highly significant
(requiring remediation and monitoring).
…Impacts can vary in:

3. Extent:
 The impacts may have only local effect such as the
need for additional housing or schooling or they
may have regional, trans-boundary or global
significance as in discharge of atmospheric
pollutants or significant contributions to
greenhouse gases.
4.Timing:
 The impacts may be felt immediately or may not be
evident for some time. For instance, exposure
carcinogenic chemicals or radiation can be
responsible for cancers developing 20 or 30 years
later
…Impacts can vary in:
5. Duration:
 The impact may range from short term, such as
noise during construction, through to permanent
impacts, as found in the relocation of a village
due to inundation during dam construction.
6.Uncertainty:
 Impacts can vary in both the likelihood (low
likelihood/high probability) and consequences of
occurrence (incidence); for instance the
likelihood of a major oil spill may be low but the
consequences of its occurrence are significant.
…Impacts can vary in:
7. Reversibility:
 Some impacts may be reversible, or able to be
rehabilitated upon the decommissioning of a project,
while others may be irreversible.
8.Significance:
 Impact significance is not necessarily related to the
impact magnitude. Sometimes very small impacts, such
as the disturbance of the nest of a pair of endangered
(scares) birds, may be very significant, while even very
large impacts may not necessarily be very significant.
Note that: In determining the significance of the impacts
associated with a proposal all of the above factors
should be taken into consideration.
2. CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF EIA

2.1. Definition and Purpose of EIA

2.1.1. Definition of EIA
 The International Association for Impact Assessment

(IAIA) defines an EIA as the process of identifying,

predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical,
social, and other relevant effects of development
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and
commitments made.
 Particular attention is given in EIA practice to

preventing, mitigating and offsetting (Compensating)

the significant adverse effects of proposed activities.
 2.1.2. Purpose and Aims of EIA

The main purpose of EIA can be stated as:

 To identify and forecast the possible positive and negative
impacts to the environment resulting from the proposed
project.
 Provide information for decision-making on the
environmental consequences of proposed actions.
 Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development
through the identification of appropriate enhancement and
mitigation measures.
 To provide mitigation measures which up on implementation
will reduce or offset the negative impacts of a project resulting
in a minimal level of environmental degradation.
 To measure the level of plan implementation and the degree of
effectiveness of the above environmental protection provisions.
Aims and objectives of EIA

Immediate objectives of EIA are to:

 Identifying the potentially significant
environmental effects and risks of development
proposals;
 Improve the environmental design of the proposal;
 Ensure that resources are used appropriately and

efficiently;
 Identify appropriate measures for mitigating the

potential impacts of the proposal; and

 Facilitate informed decision making, including

setting the environmental terms and conditions for

implementing the proposal.
Long term objectives of EIA are to:

 Promote sustainable development by

ensuring that development proposals do not
undermine critical resource and ecological
functions.
 Protect human health and safety;
 Avoid irreversible changes and serious

damage to the environment;

 Safeguard valued resources, natural areas

and ecosystem components; a

 Improve the social aspects of the proposal.
2.1.3 Three core values of EIA

 Sustainability: the EIA process will result in

environmental safeguards (the EIA process should result
in the implementation of environmental safeguards which
are sufficient to mitigate serious adverse effects and avoid
irreversible loss of resource and ecosystem functions)
 Integrity: the EIA process will conform (obey the rules) to
agreed standards (the EIA process should meet
internationally accepted requirements and standards of
practice)
 Utility: the EIA process will provide balanced, credible
information for decision making (the EIA process should
provide the information which is sufficient and relevant
for decision-making)
2.1.4 Costs and benefits of EIA

Costs
 There is no doubt that carrying out an EIA and

preparing a report costs money.

 Usually, this cost is borne by the proponent.
 The proponent should accept the cost in accordance with

the “polluter pays principle” (PPP).

 Experience has shown that the cost of preparing EIA

reports falls within the range of 0.01 per cent to 1 per

cent of capital cost (depending on the type of project and
its location).
 Once a development action is authorized, the cost of

implementing an impact management plan may add

from 1 to 15 per cent to the capital cost.
…Costs

 There is little evidence that EIA related

costs have “stopped” projects or prevented
proponents from implementing them.

 There is a cost also to government in

administering an EIA system, particularly
in relation to public involvement and
consultation, review, follow-up and
enforcement.
Benefits
In general the benefits of EIA include:
 Better environmental planning and design of a

proposal. Carrying out an EIA entails an analysis

of alternatives in the design and location of
projects. This can result in the selection of an
improved technology, which lowers waste outputs
or an environmentally optimum location for a
project. A well-designed project can minimize
risks and impacts on the environment and people,
and thereby avoid associated costs of remedial
treatment or compensation for damage
…Benefits
 Savings in capital and operating costs. EIA can avoid the
undue costs of unanticipated impacts. These can escalate
if environmental problems have not been considered from
the start of proposal design and require rectification later.
An “anticipate and avoid” approach is much cheaper
than “react and cure”. Generally, changes which must be
made late in the project cycle are the most expensive.

 Reduced time and costs of approvals of development

applications. If all environmental concerns have been
taken into account properly before submission for project
approval, then it is unlikely that delays will occur as a
result of decision-makers asking for additional
information or alterations to mitigation measures.
 Increased project acceptance by the public.
…Benefits
 The benefits of EIA tend to be long-term and
generalized, whereas the costs tend to be immediate or
short-term and are borne by specific proponents and
organizations.
 The benefits to a country are based on the prevention
of environmental damage and the move toward
sustainability created by effective EIA implementation.
 This is achieved by an open and transparent EIA
process, with provision of opportunities for public
involvement of people who are most directly affected
by and interested in the proposal, in an appropriate
ways that suits their needs.
2.2. Definition and Importance of SEA

2.2.1. Definition of SEA

 Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a

systematic process for evaluating the environmental

consequences of proposed policy, plan or program
initiatives in order to ensure they are fully included
and appropriately addressed at the earliest
appropriate stage of decision making on balance
with economic and social considerations.
 SEA refers to a formal, systematic process to

analyze and address the environmental effects of

policies, plans and programs and other strategic
initiatives.
…SEA

 Generally, policy is understood to be an

overall directive which outlines guides or
sets a context for the proposed action(s) a
government or organization intends to take.
 It may take the form of a law, document,

statement or precedent (guide).

 Typically, policy is implemented by plans

and programs, which set out actions,

options and measures to be carried out in a
sector or area.
2.2.2. Importance of SEA
 SEA extends the aims and principles of EIA to the higher
levels of decision-making when major alternatives are
still open and there is far greater scope than at the
project level to integrate environmental considerations
into development goals and objectives.
 It allows problems of environmental deterioration to be
addressed at their “upstream source” in policy and plan-
making processes, rather than mitigating their
“downstream symptoms” or project-level impacts.
 In addition, SEA can provide early warning of large-
scale and cumulative effects, including those resulting
from a number of smaller-scale projects that individually
would fall under thresholds for triggering a project EIA.
…Importance of SEA

 When applied systematically, this process

affords a means of environmental clearance
of key issues related to where and what
forms of development are environmentally
sound and appropriate. By doing so, SEA
facilitates and contributes to sustainability
assurance.
2.2.3. How does SEA compare to or differ from EIA?

EIA SEA
Is usually reactive to a Is pro-active and informs
development proposal development proposals.

Assesses the effect of a Assesses the effect of a policy,

proposed development on the plan or program on the
environment. environment.

Addresses a specific project. Addresses areas, regions or

sectors of development.

Has a well-defined beginning A continuing process aimed at

and end. providing information at the
right time.
…How does SEA compare to or differ from EIA?

Assesses direct impacts and Assesses cumulative impacts.

benefits.
Focuses on the mitigation of Focuses on maintaining a
impacts. chosen level of environmental
quality (the broader range of
alternatives).

Have a narrow perspective Have a wide perspective and a

and a high level of detail. low level of detail to provide a
vision and overall framework.
Focuses on project-specific Creates a framework against
impacts. which impacts and benefits
can be measured.
2.3. Principles of EIA
2.3.1. General principles
 Nine general principles of EIA application are

listed below.
 They are best applied as a “package”, recognizing

the whole is greater than the sum of the following

parts:

I.EIA should be applied as a tool to help achieve

sustainable development;
…General principles
II.EIA should be integrated into existing
development planning and approval processes so
that:
 Minimum disruption is caused to existing institutional
arrangements; and
 Maximum effectiveness for EIA is achieved by identifying
the appropriate “Time/locations” for EIA to be linked to
decision-making;
III.EIA should be applied as a tool to implement
environmental management, rather than as a
report to gain project approvals;
…General principles
IV. EIA should be integrated into the project life-
cycle to ensure that environmental information is
provided at the appropriate decision points and
the correct time.
 There must be constant interaction and feedback

between the EIA team and project designers and

the proponent to ensure that design/locational
changes can be implemented to avoid or minimize
adverse impacts to the maximum extent possible;
…General principles
V. EIA should be applied to all proposed actions
that are likely to have a significant adverse effect
on the environment and human health .
 In a social context, particular attention should be

given to vulnerable groups, such as indigenous

peoples, and local communities who depend upon
the resource base for their sustenance or lifestyle;
…General principles
VI. EIA should include an analysis of feasible
alternatives to the proposed action.
 The process should be applied early in project

development at a stage when these alternatives are

still practicable;
VII. EIA should include meaningful opportunities
for public involvement.
 These should occur throughout the EIA process,

using mechanisms that are appropriate to

stakeholders.
…General principles
VIII. EIA should be carried out in a multi- or inter-
disciplinary manner, using best-practicable
science and
IX. EIA should integrate information on social,
economic and biophysical impacts to the
maximum extent possible.
 An integrated approach can be applied as part of

an EIA study or carried out as part of report

preparation and synthesis.
2.3.2. Specific principles
 The general principles can be complemented by
seven specific principles of EIA application, as
outlined below.
I.EIA should be initiated through a screening
procedure to identify which projects will be
subject to EIA, and which projects require less
detailed environmental study or no additional
study beyond the screening decision.
….Specific principles
Appropriate techniques for this purpose include:
 Project lists (with thresholds);
 Sensitive area criteria;
 Checklist of environmental impacts,
 Preliminary or initial EIA; and
 Combinations of these techniques.
….Specific principles
II. Terms of reference (ToR) for EIA should be
prepared, incorporating the results of a scoping
process and specifying:
 Likely significant impacts to be identified,

predicted, evaluated, mitigated (to extent feasible)

and monitored;
 Alternative designs/locations to be assessed; and
 Work plan for EIA study and schedule of

consultations;
….Specific principles
III. EIA should be carried out in accordance with the
ToR, and having regarded to:
 Baseline studies focused only on impacts being investigated;
 Quantitative predictions of impact magnitude and
area/people affected;
 Description of impact characteristics and probability of
occurrence;
 Evaluation of significance of impacts, from each alternative,
based on clear criteria;
 Comparison of environmental impacts of each alternative.
 Preparation of an impact management plan containing
mitigation measures.
….Specific principles
IV. EIA reports should provide the information
necessary for decision-making (possibly within
page limits).
They should contain:
 An executive summary;
 Results from EIA studies;
 Information on data gaps and major sources of

uncertainties;
 Technical appendices; and
 Visual aids and easy-to-read text.
….Specific principles
V. EIA reports should be reviewed against ToR to
check they are of acceptable quality.
This requires:
 Criteria for review;
 Identification of reviewers; and
 Mechanisms for EIA reports to be amended;
….Specific principles
VI. The information in an EIA report should be
taken into account in “final” decision-making.
For this purpose, the report should contain:
 Records of decisions made to that point;
 Statements of commitment of various parties

regarding impact management; and

 Allocation of accountability for post-approval

impact management;
….Specific principles
VII. EIA should include a post-decision stage of
impact management and other follow up actions.
These should include:
 Supervision of mitigation;
 Monitoring/auditing of impacts and mitigating

measures;
 System of information flow between site engineers,

environmental consultants and control authority;

 Community liaison.
Thank you!