Lecture 03

Biological basis of behavior

LECTURER: HAFSAH AZIZ

 • Neurons (or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and
nervous system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from
the external world, for sending motor commands to our muscles, and
for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in
between.
What are • For example

neurons? Playing the piano, driving a car, or hitting a tennis ball depends, at one
level, on exact muscle coordination. But if we consider how the muscles
can be activated so precisely, we see that more fundamental processes
are involved. For the muscles to produce the complex movements that
make up any meaningful physical activity, the brain has to provide the
right messages to them and coordinate those messages. Such messages—
as well as those that enable us to think, remember, and experience
emotion—are passed through specialized cells called neurons.
 • The structure of neuron mainly comprised of:
• Soma or cell body
Structure of • Dendrites

neuron • Axons
• Terminal buttons
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
• Soma or the cell body:
Like most cells in the body, neurons have a cell body that
contains a nucleus. The nucleus incorporates the hereditary
material that determines how a cell will function.
• Dendrites:
Dendrites are short and thick branches found on the end of a
cell body. They are specialized to receive extra cellular
influences, either from other cells or from the environment
in the form of signals.
• Axon:
. On the opposite side of the cell body is a long, slim, tube-
like extension called an axon. The axon carries messages
received by the dendrites to other neurons. The axon is
considerably longer than the rest of the neuron. Although
most axons are several millimeters in length, some are as
long as 3 feet.
• Terminal buttons:
Small bulges at the end of axons that send messages to other
neurons.
• Myelin Sheath
To prevent messages from short-circuiting one another,
axons must be insulated in some fashion (just as electrical
wires must be insulated). Most axons are insulated by a
myelin sheath, a protective coating of fat and protein that
wraps around the axon. The myelin sheath also serves to
increase the velocity with which electrical impulses travel
through axons.
 • Like a gun, neurons either fire—that is, transmit an electrical
impulse along the axon— or don’t fire. There is no in-between
stage, just as pulling harder on a gun trigger doesn’t make the
bullet travel faster. Similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none
law : They are either on or off, with nothing in between the on
state and the off state. When there is enough force to pull the
How Neurons trigger, a neuron fires.
Fire • Before a neuron is triggered—that is, when it is in a resting
state —it has a negative electrical charge of about 70 millivolts
(a millivolt is one 1⁄ 1,000 of a volt). This charge is caused by
the presence of more negatively charged ions within the
neuron than outside it. (An ion is an atom that is electrically
charged.) You might think of the neuron as a miniature battery
in which the inside of the neuron represents the negative pole,
and the outside represents the positive pole.
•Movement of an action
potential along an axon. Just
before Time 1, positively
charged ions enter the cell
membrane, changing the charge
in the nearby part of the axon
from negative to positive and
triggering an action potential.
The action potential travels
along the axon, as illustrated in
the changes occurring from
Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to
bottom in this drawing).
Immediately after the action
potential has passed through a
section of the axon, positive
ions are pumped out, restoring
the charge in that section to
negative.
• When a message arrives at a neuron, gates along the cell
membrane open briefly to allow positively charged ions to
rush in at rates as high as 100 million ions per second. The
sudden arrival of these positive ions causes the charge
within the nearby part of the cell to change momentarily
from negative to positive. When the positive charge
reaches a critical level, the “trigger” is pulled, and an
electrical impulse, known as an action potential, travels
along the axon of the neuron.
• The action potential moves from one end of the axon
to the other like a flame moving along a fuse. As the
impulse travels along the axon, the movement of ions
causes a change in charge from negative to positive in
successive sections of the axon. After the impulse has
passed through a particular section of the axon, positive
ions are pumped out of that section, and its charge returns
to negative while the action potential continues to move
along the axon.
• Just after an action potential has passed through a section
of the axon, the cell membrane in that region cannot admit
positive ions again for a few milliseconds, and so a neuron
cannot fi re again immediately no matter how much
stimulation it receives. It is as if the gun has to be reloaded
after each shot. There then follows a period in which,
though it is possible for the neuron to fi re, a stronger
stimulus is needed than would be if the neuron had reached
its normal resting state. Eventually, though, the neuron is
ready to fi re again.
•
 Where
Neurons
Meet:
Bridging the
Gap
• If you have looked inside a computer, you’ve seen that each part is physically connected to another part.
In contrast, evolution has produced a neural transmission system that at some points has no need for a
structural connection between its components. Instead, a chemical connection bridges the gap, known as
a synapse, between two neurons (see Figure 4). The synapse is the space between two neurons where
the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical
messages.
• When a nerve impulse comes to the end of the axon and reaches a terminal button, the terminal button
releases a chemical courier called a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry
messages across the synapse to a dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. Like a
boat that ferries passengers across a river, these chemical messengers move toward the shorelines of
other neurons. The chemical mode of message transmission that occurs between neurons is strikingly
different from the means by which communication occurs inside neurons: Although messages travel in
electrical form within a neuron, they move between neurons through a chemical transmission system.
• There are several types of neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are capable of receiving the chemical
message carried by a particular neurotransmitter. In the same way that a jigsaw puzzle piece can fi t in
only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that
allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor site on the receiving neuron. It is only when a
neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site that successful chemical communication is possible.
• If a neurotransmitter does fit into a site on the receiving neuron, the chemical message it delivers is
basically one of two types: excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory messages make it more likely that a
receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory messages , in
contrast, do just the opposite; they provide chemical information that prevents or decreases the
likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire.
• Because the dendrites of a neuron receive both excitatory and inhibitory messages simultaneously, the neuron
must integrate the messages by using a kind of chemical calculator. Put simply, if the excitatory messages
(“Fire!”) outnumber the inhibitory ones (“Don’t fi re!”), the neuron fires. In contrast, if the inhibitory
messages outnumber the excitatory ones, nothing happens, and the neuron remains in its resting state.
• If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, receiving neurons would be awash in a continual
chemical bath, producing constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neurons—and effective
communication across the synapse would no longer be possible. To avoid this problem, neurotransmitters are
either deactivated by enzymes or—more commonly—reabsorbed by the terminal button in an example of
chemical recycling called reuptake . Like a vacuum cleaner sucking up dust, neurons reabsorb the
neurotransmitters that are now clogging the synapse. All this activity occurs at lightning speed, with the
process taking just several milliseconds (Helmuth, 2000; Holt & Jahn, 2004).
• Our understanding of the process of reuptake has permitted the development of a number of drugs used in
the treatment of psychological disorders. Some antidepressant drugs, called SSRIs, or selective ser o tonin
reuptake inhibitors, permit certain neurotransmitters to remain active for a longer period at certain synapses
in the brain, thereby reducing the symptoms of depression.
Neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Not only are
they important for maintaining vital brain and body functions, a deficiency or an excess of a neurotransmitter
can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been found to act as
neurotransmitters, and neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified.
• One of the most common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine (or ACh , its chemical symbol), which is
found throughout the nervous system. ACh is involved in our every move, because—among other things—it
transmits messages relating to our skeletal muscles. ACh is also involved in memory capabilities, and
diminished production of ACh may be related to Alzheimer’s disease.
• Another common excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate, plays a role in memory. Memories appear to be
produced by specific biochemical changes at particular synapses, and glutamate, along with other
neurotransmitters, plays an important role in this process.
• Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), which is found in both the brain and the spinal cord, appears to be
the nervous system’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. It moderates a variety of behaviors, ranging from
eating to aggression. Several common substances, such as the tranquilizer Valium and alcohol, are effective
because they permit GABA to operate more efficiently.
• Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine (DA), which is involved in movement, attention, and learning.
The discovery that certain drugs can have a significant effect on dopamine release has led to the development
of effective treatments for a wide variety of physical and mental ailments. For instance, Parkinson’s disease.
Techniques for increasing the production of dopamine in Parkinson’s patients are proving effective.
• Another neurotransmitter, serotonin, is associated with the regulation of sleep, eating,
mood, and pain. A growing body of research points toward a broader role for serotonin,
suggesting its involvement in such diverse behaviors as alcoholism, depression, suicide,
impulsivity, aggression, and coping with stress.
• Endorphins, another class of neurotransmitters, are a family of chemicals produced by the
brain that are similar in structure to painkilling drugs such as morphine. The production of
endorphins reflects the brain’s effort to deal with pain as well as to elevate mood.
Endorphins also may produce the euphoric feelings that runners sometimes experience
after long runs. The exertion and perhaps the pain involved in a long run may stimulate the
production of endorphins, ultimately resulting in what has been called “runner’s high”.
• Endorphin release might also explain other phenomena that have long puzzled
psychologists. For example, the act of taking placebos (pills or other substances that
contain no actual drugs but that patients believe will make them better) may induce the
release of endorphins, leading to the reduction of pain.
 Nervous System

Central Nervous Peripheral

System Nervous System
Central Nervous System
• The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
• The spinal cord, which is about the thickness of a pencil, contains a bundle of neurons that
leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back .The spinal cord is the primary means for
transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body.
• However, the spinal cord is not just a communication channel. It also controls some simple
behaviors on its own, without any help from the brain. An example is the way the knee jerks
forward when it is tapped with a rubber hammer. This behavior is a type of reflex, an
automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. A reflex is also at work when you
touch a hot stove and immediately withdraw your hand. Although the brain eventually
analyzes and reacts to the situation (“Ouch—hot stove—pull away!”), the initial withdrawal is
directed only by neurons in the spinal cord.
• Several kinds of neurons are involved in reflexes. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit
information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system and the brain. For
example, touching a hot stove sends a message to the brain (hot!) via sensory neurons.
• Motor (efferent) neurons communicate information in the opposite
direction, from the brain and nervous system to muscles and glands.
When the brain sends a message to the muscles of the hand (hot—
move away!), the message travels via motor neurons.
• The importance of the spinal cord and reflexes is illustrated by the
outcome of accidents in which the cord is injured or severed. In some
cases, injury results in quadriplegia , a condition in which people
lose voluntary muscle movement below the neck. In a less severe but
still debilitating condition, paraplegia , people are unable to
voluntarily move any muscles in the lower half of the body.
Peripheral Nervous System

• As suggested by its name, the peripheral nervous system branches out from the spinal
cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Made up of neurons with long
axons and dendrites, the peripheral nervous system encompasses all the parts of the
nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord. There are two major divisions— the
somatic division and the autonomic division—both of which connect the central
nervous system with the sense organs, muscles, glands, and other organs.
• The somatic division specializes in the control of voluntary movements—such as the
motion of the eyes to read this sentence or those of the hand to turn this page—and the
communication of information to and from the sense organs. The autonomic division
controls the parts of the body that keep us alive—the heart, blood vessels, glands, lungs,
and other organs that function involuntarily without our awareness. As you are reading at
this moment, the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system is pumping blood
through your body, pushing your lungs in and out, and overseeing the digestion of your
last meal
ACTIVATING THE DIVISIONS OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The autonomic division plays a particularly crucial role during emergencies. Suppose that as you are
reading you suddenly sense that a stranger is watching you through the window. As you look up, you see
the glint of something that might be a knife. As
• confusion clouds your mind and fear overcomes your attempts to think rationally, what happens to your
body? If you are like most people, you react immediately on a physiological level. Your heart rate
increases, you begin to sweat, and you develop goose bumps all over your body.
• The physiological changes that occur during a crisis result from the activation of one of the two parts of
the autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic division . The sympathetic division acts to prepare the
body for action in stressful situations by engaging all of the organism’s resources to run away or to
confront the threat. This is often called the “fight or flight” response.
• In contrast, the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has ended. When
you find, for instance, that the stranger at the window is actually your roommate, who has lost his keys
and is climbing in the window to avoid waking you, your parasympathetic division begins to take over,
lowering your heart rate, stopping your sweating, and returning your body to the state it was in before
you became alarmed. The parasympathetic division also directs the body to store energy for use in
emergencies.
The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands

• Another of the body’s communication systems, the endocrine system is a chemical

communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Its job is to
secrete hormones , chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or
growth of the body. It also influences—and is influenced by—the functioning of the nervous
system. Although the endocrine system is not part of the brain, it is closely linked to the
hypothalamus.
• As chemical messengers, hormones are like neurotransmitters, although their speed and mode of
transmission are quite different. Whereas neural messages are measured in thousandths of a second,
hormonal communications may take minutes to reach their destination. Furthermore, neural
messages move through neurons in specific lines (like a signal carried by wires strung along
telephone poles), whereas hormones travel throughout the body, similar to the way radio waves are
transmitted across the entire landscape. Just as radio waves evoke a response only when a radio is
tuned to the correct station, hormones flowing through the bloodstream activate only those cells that
are receptive and “tuned” to the appropriate hormonal message.
• A key component of the endocrine system is the tiny pituitary gland , which is found near—and
regulated by—the hypothalamus in the brain. The pituitary gland has sometimes been called the
“master gland” because it controls the functioning of the rest of the endocrine system. But the
pituitary gland is more than just the taskmaster of other glands; it has important functions in its own