Transmission & Distribution

Voltage Classification
Low Voltage
 Up to 250 V
 A/C 1 230 V & 230 DC V

Medium Voltage
 Above 250 V & Up to 650 V
 A/C 3 230/415 V & 500 V DC
Voltage Classification
High Voltage
 Above 650 V & up to 33000V
Extra High Voltage
 Above 33000 V
Variation of Voltage &
Frequency
Max. Permissible Limit - Voltage
 For Low & Medium Voltage is 5%
 For High & Extra High Voltage is

12.5%
Max. Permissible Limit –
Frequency
 ± 3% - 48.5 to 51.5 Hz
Specified by IE Rule No.5
Span Permitted Across Street
Maximum Permissible Span
 Across or Along the Street for Low &
Medium Voltages - 220 Feet
Specified in IE Rule No.85
Factor of Safety
Ratio of Ultimate Breaking Stress to
Safe Working Stress
Every material breakdown due to
 Tension / Compression/ Shear
Mild Steel – Ultimate breaking Strength
 28 Tons Per Sq. Inch
Recommended Safety Factor
for OHL by IE Rule No.76
Metal Supports based on Crippling load 2.0
Mechanically processed Concrete supports 2.5

Hand Moulded Concrete Supports 3.0

Wood Supports 3.5

Latticed Steel Structures 1.5
Guard Wires, Bearer wires, etc 2.5
Conductors under worst conditions 2.0
OH Line Protective Devices
Fuses & isolating Devices
Lightning Arrestors at Point of
tapping
Earthed Guard wire below Street &
Road crossing
OH Line Protective Devices
Guard wire to protect Telephone,
Telegraph lines & Cable TV
Guard wire & Steel structure must
be solidly earthed at frequent
interval
Vibration Dampers
Minimum Clearance of
Conductors at Mid-span / Worst
Areas LV HV EHV
Rural & Traffic 15 Feet 17Feet 17ft + 1 Ft
Free Area (bare) for Every
13Ft(Ins) 33KV
Village & Town 18 Feet 19Feet -Do-
along Street
Village & Town 19 Feet 20Feet -Do-
across Streets
Minimum Clearance for
OHL from Building
Line Voltage Vertical Horizontal

LV & MV 8 Feet 4 Feet

Up to 11KV 12 Feet 4 Feet

Up to 33KV 12 Feet 6 Feet

Above 33KV 12 + 1 Ft for 6 + 1Ft for

Every 33KV Every 33KV
Minimum Spacing
Between Conductors
Vertical Horizontal Bet. Cond.
400/230V 1’ 6” 1’ 3” 6”
11 KV 2’ 6” 3’ 9” 1’ 0”
33 KV 4’ 0” 5’ 0” 2’ 0”
66 KV 6’ 6” 10’ 7” 2’ 6”
110 KV 10’ 3” 16’ 3” 3’ 6”
132 KV 12’ 0” 19’ 3” 4’ 3”
Effect of Temp. on Sag
Heat Expands & Length of
Conductor increases with Rise in
Temp.
At Min. Temp. – Lowest Sag & Max.
Tension in Conductor
Effect of Temp. on Sag
At Max. Temp. – Max. Sag & No
wind Pressure
 Also Electrical Clearance should be
above the Min. prescribed value
Sag Chart – Shows the tension &
Sag at Different Temperature
Sag Chart
Designing of Structural
Supports for OHL
Based on OHL Voltage
Types of Supports
 Wood Poles, Rail Post, RCC Post, Tubular
Steel Poles, I Section Rolled Steel Joists &
Fabricated Steel Towers
Designing of Structural
Supports for OHL
Height of Post
Approximate Span
Approximate Sag
Approximate Sag & Span
Voltage Approximate Approximate
Span Sag
LV & MV 150 to 250 Ft 2 to 3 Ft

6.6 & 11 KV 300 to 400 Ft 3 to 4.5 Ft

22 & 33 KV 400 to 500 Ft 4 to 6 Ft

66 KV 600 to 800 Ft 6 to 10 Ft

110 & 132 KV 800 to 1100Ft 15 to 20 Ft

Height of Structure & Span
Height & Span are interlinked
If the span is doubled in order to
reduce the No. of Structure
 Sag becomes 4 Times
Height of Structure & Span
If Sag increased the height of
structure to be increased
 Structure cost Increased
Height of Structure is the
compromise between span & cost
of structure
Advantage of Steel Cored
Aluminium Conductors (ACSR)
ACSR Conductors
 20% Lighter than Copper Conductors
 50% Greater Tensile Strength

 Sag is low compared to Other

 Higher Corona Limit

 Ideal for EHV Line – Where X > X

C L
Advantage of Steel Cored
Aluminium Conductors (ACSR)
Span Length can be increased by
25 to 30% for the same height of
tower
 Reduce Insulator Cost
 Reduce No. of Structure
Dis-Advantage of Steel Cored
Aluminium Conductors (ACSR)
Lower Electrical Conductivity
Line Inductive Reactance will more
& Larger Spacing Between
conductors
60% More cross sectional area
compared to Copper Conductors
Dis-Advantage of Steel Cored
Aluminium Conductors (ACSR)
Larger Diameter results in wind
pressure & Stronger Supporting
Structure
Corrosion in Salty & Smoky
industrial Atmosphere
Galvanic Corrosion due to
dissimilar metal joints
Continuous Earth Wire over
the OHL
LV & MV Distribution use
 N0.8 SWG Copper
Solidly connected to earth
Protect Shock in case of metal post
 Due to insulator failure
Continuous Earth Wire over
the OHL
In HV Tr. Line
 Act as Shielding to protect from
Lightning Surge
 7/10 SWG GI / ACSR Conductors

 Earth Electrode resistance less than

10
Inspection of OHL
Foot patrolling of Transmission Lines
 should be carried out by patrolmen at
least once in week
 Overgrowth of Trees & building of Bird’s

Nest on Cross arm

 Cracks on Insulators

 Faulty line regulation

Inspection of OHL
Measure Earth resistance once in a
year
Sign of Corrosion & Paint work
Cleaning of Insulators with Water
Prevention of Steel Poles &
Structures from Rusting
Galvanize the Post & Structure
Coat with primer & paint
 Paint will last longer for 6 to 8 Years
When corrosion start immediate
steps to taken to prevent
Prevention of Steel Poles &
Structures from Rusting
Clean the rusting pole to remove
rusting with Emery paper & coat
with Primer & paint
Effective form of cleaning rusting is
by Oxy-acetylene flame
Protection Required for
Transmission Lines
Merz-Price protection system
 Compare the equality of currents at
Sending & Receiving end
 Uses pilot wires

Modern practice – Distance

Protection with Impedance relays
 Excellent graded zone protection
Protection Required for
Transmission Lines
Earth Wire on Top of the Structure to
prevent from Lightning Surges
Switching & Lightning Surges with
Lightning Arrestor at termination end
Insulation Level
Insulation Level of any
Transformer / Transmission
Line is
 Highest voltage which it can
withstand without damage
Insulation Level
Can be determined by the
impulse voltage test
 Crest value of the wave
proportional to the insulation
value
Insulation Level
Insulation Co-ordination
In an Electrical Installation -
Insulation co-ordination refers to
 Grading of the insulation level of the
different equipment
Insulation Co-ordination
Most important / Costly is
adequately protected
 Have high insulation level compared
to other
 Costly equipment is protected at the

expense of less expensive equipment

Insulation Level of Equipment
Transformer
Transformer bushing
Insulators used in Transmission
lines
Insulation Level of Equipment
Lightning Arrestor
On conservative protection basis
 Transformer is subjected to 50% of
impulse test level of Lightning
Stresses
Principle of Operation of
Lightning Arrestor
Simplest form of Lightning Arrestor
is the Lightning Diverter
A Sphere Gap / Horn Gap
connected between Line to Earth
Principle of Operation of
Lightning Arrestor
The Gap breaks, when the line
voltage exceeds 120% of nominal
highest operating voltage
 Energy of the Lightning surge will
dissipated
Disadvantage of Lightning
Diverter
Nothing to suppress the arc in the
Sphere or Horn gap
Even after the surge passed, it will act
as a dead short
To overcome the Dead short
 A series resistance will introduced in the
gap – to limit the current by passed
Latest Lightning Arrestor
Employs a Non-linear type of
voltage sensitive resistor
 Offer Low resistance for High Voltage
 High resistance for Low Voltage
Latest Lightning Arrestor
Material used are – Thyrite /
Metrosil
 Resistance decreases rapidly as the
applied voltage increase
 As soon as the surge energy is

dissipated, the resistance is restored

to a high value
 Which suppresses the arc across the

gap
Care to be taken while
selecting a Lightning Arrestor
Voltage rating should be
slightly above the Highest
power frequency voltage to
earth
If it spark due to power
frequency voltage – It will be
totally damaged
Care to be taken while
selecting a Lightning Arrestor
Std. Rating – 10, 5 ,2.5 & 1.5 KA of
Discharge Current
Lightning Arrestor should be
installed as close to the equipment
Underground Cable
Methods of Laying UG Cable
Laid directly in ground
Drawn in pipes or ducts
Laid Solid in Bitumen
Supported on Brackets
Laid Directly in Ground
Depth of trench may between 2.5 to 3.5
feet
Bottom of the trench is leveled & freed
from Stones and sharp edges of rock
A layer of 4 inch thick of clear river sand
is laid at the bottom of the trench
Laid Directly in Ground
Lay the Cable & covered once again
with a 4 inch layer of river sand
Cover with RCC Slab or one layer of
bricks
 Protection as well as cable route
identification
Drawn in Pipes Or Ducts
Pipe may be of earthen ware, Cast iron,
Galvanized iron or Spun cement pipe
When crossing across Street / railway
tracks
Size of pipe to be sufficiently large for
future expansion / additional cables
Good for rework / Fault rectification
Laid Solid in Bitumen
Done, where soil is chemically very
active and corrosive nature
RCC channel section of 2 to 3 feet
long are first laid at the bottom level
of the trench
Laid Solid in Bitumen
Cable is laid over the RCC channel
Bitumen is heated and poured over
until cable is entirely covered
Top is covered with RCC Caps
Supported on Brackets
When cable is laid above the
ground
 It should be suitably supported or
suspended at sufficiently close
intervals
On vertical runs – suitable clamps
should be used
Normal practice in Industries
Bending radius of UG Cable
Upto 11KV 3 core & 4 12 D
Core
22KV 3 core 15 D

33KV 3 Core 20 D

Above 33 KV single Core 30 D

D is the Diameter of the Cable

Cable Laying in Trench
In trench & Ducts the bending
radius is
 9 Feet for HV UG Cable
 6 Feet for LT Cable

 4 Feet for Smaller size LT Cable

Cable should be placed in trays

 To give bottom clearance
Advantage of OH Lines
Commonly employed because of its
 Flexibility
 Ease of Erection

 Convenience in Tapping off

Open country long distance

transmission
Advantage of UG Cable
Most useful in congested and built-
up urban areas
 Where Impractical to lay OH lines
City Aesthetics
Less maintenance
Suitable for Distribution
Causes of Failure of UG
Cable
Common point of failure at the
cable sealing box
 Due to bad workmanship
Mechanical puncturing of lead
sheath of UG Cable by crowbar
Causes of Failure of UG
Cable
Vibration Fatigue
Over heating due to excess load
Leaking of oil thro’ cable boxes
Electrolytic & Chemical
Corrosion
Certain Soils are chemically active
Causes pitting & Corrosion
Lead sheathing of UG cable has
very high degree of resistance
against corrosion
Go for 4 inch of pure layer sand
after laying cable
Cable Faults
Dead Short between phases
Between Phase & Earth
Discontinuity
Low Insulation Value
Step by Step to find the Cable
fault location
Terminal boxes are the most
common point of failure
 Should looked into first
Locate its position from the drawing
or route indicators & Inspect
First Isolate the two end boxes
Step by Step to find the Cable
fault location
Inspect end box for Dead short or
Earth fault
 External appearance of box will
indicate in case of HT Cable
Check straight thro’ boxes or T
boxes below ground has failed
Step by Step to find the Cable
fault location
Send somebody to walk along the
route of the cable
 To see it some one carelessly
damaged the cable by hitting a
crowbar
 Puncturing cable when digging a

trench to carryout some other

construction work
Fall of Potential Method to
Locate Fault
Based on the principle that the
voltage drop is uniform per unit
length of the cable
Requires the use of another good
core of identical size
Fall of Potential Method to
Locate Fault
Test is conducted after forming a
loop
 Making use of another sound cable &
passing a current round the loop
Higher the circulating current
 More accurate the test will be
Fall of Potential Method to
Locate Fault
It may be necessary to use a short
piece of iron wire to limit the current
About 6 to 8 Amp. Form a well
charged 12 volt Automotive battery
would be convenient for the supply
Fall of Potential Method to
Locate Fault
Voltages between each end of the
loop & the fault are measured
 Using a sensitive high resistance
voltmeter having a long scale
Fall of Potential Method
Fall of Potential Method
AB is the faulty core with earth fault at F,
while CD is the second core
There will be uniform fall of potential
from one end to the other along ABDC
If V’ & V” are the voltages recorded
between A and E & C and E by making
use of the changeover switch
Fall of Potential Method
The Distance X to the fault from end
A will be given by
 X = [ V’/(V’+V”)] X 2 L
 Where L is the length AB = CD

Assuming that the loop ABDC has

uniform resistance throughout its
length
Murray Loop Method to
Locate Cable fault
Most popular method in use for the
exact location of faults
This method also requires the use
of another sound core
Murray Loop Method to
Locate Cable fault
A Wheat stone bridge network is
formed to locate the fault
 With the help of external resistance &
cable resistance
 A galvanometer is used to balance

the bridge
Murray Loop Test
Murray Loop Test
The sound cable CD & The faulty cable
AB are looped at the far end and
connected to two arms
 To form a wheat stone bridge network
Four arms are a , b, AF and FBDC
A galvanometer G is placed across the
ratio arms
Murray Loop Test
One pole of the battery is connected to
the junction of the ratio arms, while the
other pole is connected to earth
When balance is obtained, the distance
X is found from the following formula
 Distance X = [ a /(a + b)] X 2 L
Location of Discontinuity of
One of the Cores
Locating discontinuity is easy when
the insulation resistance of the core
is very high
Principle employed is to compare
the capacity of the faulty core with
that of the sound core
 Either by measuring the deflection on
a galvanometer or by an AC Bridge
Locating Discontinuity in UG
Cable
Location of Discontinuity of
One of the Cores
First the AF get charged by
connected to the battery supply
Then quickly changeover switch
No.2 to the galvanometer side
 Note its deflection – Let it be d1
Then changeover switch No.1 to
CD & CD get charged by the batter
supply
Location of Discontinuity of
One of the Cores
Then quickly changeover switch no.2 to
the galvanometer side
 Note its deflection – let it be d2
If cable AB & CD are identical
 Since the charge is directly proportional to
the lengths
The distance of fault is given by
 X = [d1/d2] X L