Project Management

What defines a Project?

• A project is any activity:
– having a specific objective
– a definite start and finish
– and a finite resource budget
• A series of tasks worked on by several people within
constraints of time, money and resources, to achieve a
significant goal.
• Projects are ‘one-off’, unique events – they’re not carried
out as a matter of habit (e.g. printing pay cheques)
– unique, one-time complex undertakings
– with a defined (temporary) life.
What does a Project do?
• It uses a combination of human, technical,
administrative and financial resources in order to
achieve a specific goal (scope) within a fixed
period of time.
• It has a unique purpose, is temporary, requires
resources, has a client or sponsor and involves
uncertainty (risk).
Project

The aim of every project is to be;

• On time
• Within budget
Project Characteristics

• A clear defined purpose

• A start time
• A limited timeline
• A number of tasks
Project Management
Why do projects fail?

*Working without a clear set of specifications

*Lack of user involvement/agreement
*Lack of planning and resourcing
*Poor estimation of resources required
*Poor documentation of decisions
*Inadequate knowledge of tools/techniques
*Premature coding
*Lack of quality assurance
*Staff turnover
*Over-manning in a crisis
Information Systems projects?
• Large numbers of IS projects fail
– run over budget
– run well over time.
• Some early statistics found:
– 10% of IS projects 100% over budget.
– 30-35% of IS projects are runaways
– 50% of IS projects at least 1 year late & 100% over budget.
• Many times projects are abandoned only when funds
are nearly exhausted.
Project Management
What is Project Management?
Project management is the process of defining, planning, directing,
monitoring and controlling the development of an acceptable
system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame.

To be acceptable, the system must work, it must fulfil user

expectations, and must satisfy the requirements specification.
Project Management
Project Management involves the management of
resources within a project.
Resources refer to;
•Money
•Time
•People
•Equipment

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Project Management
What is involved in Project planning?

Answers questions such as:

* What is the scope of the project?

* What tasks are required to complete it?
* How much time will be required?
* How many people will be needed?
* Which tasks must be completed before others?
* Can some tasks be done concurrently?

All these questions are stored within a Project Plan

Project Management
If we know when tasks are to occur within a Project

* We can determine the number and the type of

people required at any specific time?
* We can determine exactly when resources are
required.
* We can better manage the progress of a project
* We can determine which tasks can be completed
concurrently.
Importance of a Project Plan
• Managers often cite delivering projects on time as one
of their biggest challenges
• Time has the least amount of flexibility; it passes no
matter what happens on a project
• Schedule issues are the main reason for conflicts on
projects, especially during the second half of projects
Problem Solving Methodology
Project Management Tools

• Gantt chart
• PERT chart * Not required

Gantt chart PERT chart

Work Breakdown Structure
• A Work Breakdown Structure is a good way of
beginning a Gantt or PERT
• In a WBS all the tasks (and subtasks) in the project
are identified and put in order of execution.
• Ensures necessary jobs are not forgotten!
Project Table
Project Time Management Processes
• Defining activities: identifying the specific activities that the
project team members and stakeholders must perform to
produce the project deliverables
• Sequencing activities: identifying and documenting the
relationships between project activities
• Estimating activity resources: estimating how many
resources a project team should use to perform project
activities
• Estimating activity durations: estimating the number of work
periods that are needed to complete individual activities
• Developing the schedule: analyzing activity sequences,
activity resource estimates, and activity duration estimates to
create the project schedule
• Controlling the schedule: controlling and managing changes
to the project schedule
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Sample WBS
WBS Number Task Description
1.0 Project initiation
1.1 Draft project plan
2.0 Analysis phase
2.1 Plan user interviews

2.2 Schedule users interviews

3.0 Examination and test

4.0 Design
5.0 Test
6.0 Implementation
7.0 Post implementation review

Note how large tasks (e.g. 1 and 2) can be subdivided

into subtasks (e.g. 2.1, 2.2). Later, large tasks can be
collapsed or expanded to hide or show their subtasks.
Task Description Preceding task(s) Days required
a Systems analysis - 20
b Program specification a 10
c Input design a 5
d Output design a 7
e Program coding b&c&d 12
f Program testing e 8
Project Management - Tasks
• A task is any activity within the project timeline that needs to
be completed within a defined period of time. It is an essential
component of a project and typically involves the management
of resources. All of the tasks that are required to be completed
must be shown in the project plan.
• A task should contain the following information;
Description
Start Date
Duration
Required Resources
Successor and predecessors tasks

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Project Management – Tasks
Dependencies
A project plan are rarely made up of stand alone tasks, more often
than not tasks rely on other tasks having been completed.
Description. Tasks that must be completed before another task
can begin are called predecessors. The dependent tasks are
successors.
Task Description Preceding task(s) Days required
a Systems analysis - 20
b Program specification a 10
c Input design a 5
d Output design a 7
e Program coding b&c&d 12
f Program testing e 8
Tasks Dependencies
Task A Task B Task C Task D Task E Task F

Task B Task D

Task A Task F Task G Task H

Task C Task E

Task B Task E Task F

Task A Task G Task H

Task C Task D
Project Management - Milestones
• A milestone represents the achievement is a significant
stage or point within in a project. The event is represent
aby a task with zero duration.
• It often takes several activities and a lot of work to
complete a milestone
• They’re useful tools for setting schedule goals and
monitoring progress
• Examples include obtaining customer sign-off on key
documents or completion of specific products, the end of
programming
Project Management – Critical Path
• The critical path for a project represents a list of tasks that
determines the earliest time by which the project can be
completed
• The critical path is the longest path (time) through the
network diagram and has the least amount of slack or float
• Slack or float is the amount of time an activity may be
delayed without delaying a succeeding activity or the
project finish date
• If one or more of the tasks on the critical path takes longer
than planned, the whole project schedule will be delayed.
Network Diagrams
• Network diagrams are the preferred technique for showing
activity sequencing
• A network diagram is a schematic display of the logical
relationships among, or sequencing of, project activities
• Activities are represented by arrows
• Nodes or circles are the starting and ending points of
activities
 b,10

a,20 c,5 e,12 f,8

1 2 3 4 5

d,7

3 possible paths:

(i) a-b-e-f = 20 + 10 + 12 + 8 = 50 days

*

(ii) a-c-e-f = 20 + 5 + 12 + 8 = 45 days

(iii) a-d-e-f = 20 + 7 + 12 + 8 = 47 days

* Critical path is: a - b - e - f

Sample Network Diagram
Determining the Critical Path

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Tutorial Activities
Steps to prepare a tasks/activities table
1. List all activities (or tasks) included in the project.
2. Determine the sequence of the tasks.
3. Estimate time required for each task.
– When a task table is done, it contains the following information:
• Task name,
• Description,
• Preceding task/Previous task,
• Duration/Normal time,
• Crash Time (Optional).
Example 1

1. List of Tasks

Task Description
a Systems analysis
b Program specification
c Input design
d Output design
e Program coding
f Program testing
Example 1

2. Determine the sequence of task

Task Description Preceding

task(s)
a Systems analysis -
b Program specification a
c Input design a
d Output design a
e Program coding b&c&d
f Program testing e
Example 1

3. Estimate the time required for each task

Task Description Preceding task(s) Days required

a Systems analysis - 20
b Program specification a 10
c Input design a 5
d Output design a 7
e Program coding b&c&d 12
f Program testing e 8
Steps to drawing a PERT diagram
using the task table
1. Select the task(s) from the table with no preceding task.

2. Represent the task by using a vector (arrow) between nodes.

3. Continue with the task(s) that follow the selected task.

4. Repeat this process until all tasks are included in the PERT
diagram.

Usually the beginning node of the first task (task with no preceding
task) and the ending node of the last task (task with no following
task) are represented by a double circle.
Symbols used in Network Diagrams

A, d task (or activity) number A,

with duration d

n event (or milestone) number n

dummy activity (used for synchronization)

critical activity (a task on the critical path)

• Serial tasks:

Y can’t begin until X ends, Z can’t begin until Y ends

X Y Z
1 2 3 4

• Parallel tasks:

Z can’t begin until both X and Y have ended

Z
1 2 3
Y
• Use of a dummy task:
Z can’t begin until both X and Y have ended,
but W can begin as soon as Y has ended.

X Z
3 4

1
Y
W
2 5

•Node Numbers
Each node must be given a unique number.
Node numbers must follow the arrows.
 Task Duration (days) Predecessor
A 3 --
B 10 A
C 5 A
D 8 B,C

A,3
1 1 2

B,10

2 A,3
1 2 3

C,5

B,10 3
A,3
2 1 2 Dummy 0

C,5 4
 Task Duration (days) Predecessor
A 3 --
B 10 A
C 5 A
D 8 B,C

D,8
B,10 3 5

3 A,3
1 2 0

C,5 4
Critical Path (Forward Pass)
Max(13,8) 21
D,8
3 B,10 3 5
A,3
1 2 0

C,5 4
8
13 21
D,8
3 B,10 3 5
A,3
1 2 0

C,5 4
8
Critical Path: A,B,D 21 days
Example 1

3. Estimate the time required for each task

Task Description Preceding task(s) Days required

a Systems analysis - 20
b Program specification a 10
c Input design a 5
d Output design a 7
e Program coding b&c&d 12
f Program testing e 8
 Example 1 (continued)

1. Using the task table, the task with no preceding task is task a.

2. Represent the task with an arrowed vector and two nodes.

The direction of the arrow indicates that task a is moving from
node 1 to node 2.

a,20
1 2
 3. Continue with the tasks that follow task a.

b,10

a,20 c,5
1 2 3

d,7
 4. Repeat this process until all tasks are included in the PERT diagram.
b,10

a,20 c,5 e,12 f,8

1 2 3 4 5

d,7

4
, 10
b

a,20 c,5 e,12 f,8

1 2 3 6 7 8
d,
7

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Determine the critical path(s).

3 possible paths:

(i) a-b-e-f = 20 + 10 + 12 + 8 = 50 days *

(ii) a-c-e-f = 20 + 5 + 12 + 8 = 45 days

(iii) a-d-e-f = 20 + 7 + 12 + 8 = 47 days

* Critical path is: a - b - e - f

Minimum time to complete the project is: 50 days

6. Show the critical path(s) on the diagram.

b,10

a,20 c,5 e,12 f,8

1 2 3 4 5

d,7
Critical Path Algorithm
*Uses a table to determine the following for each task:
ES = earliest start EF = earliest finish ST = slack time
LS = latest start LF = latest finish ( d = duration )

e.g.

Task Pred. d ES EF LS LF ST
 Example 2
Given the following project tasks outline:

Task Description Predecessor Duration

A Design overall system - 30
B Develop program specification A 12
C Design controlling program B 8
D Design updating program B 15
E Design reporting program B 7
F Code controlling program C 2
G Prepare user guide C 5
H Test controlling program F&G 2
I Code updating program D 6
J Test updating program I 4
K Test controlling & updating programs H&J 2
L Code reporting program E 3
M Test report program L 1
N Full integration test K&M 4

What is the minimum time required for the project? What is the slack
time for each task? Determine the critical tasks.
From this table we can see the following:

a)for each activity:

- the earliest and latest times that activity can start,
- the earliest and latest times that activity can finish,
- its slack time

b)the minimum time to complete the project

(and also the length of the critical path) = maximum(EF) =
73 days

c)the activities on the critical path (those with ST = 0) are: A,

B, D, I, J, K & L

These observations allow the project manager to monitor the

progress of each task in the project, and to make informed
decisions about whether the project is on schedule, or not.
 Using Critical Path Analysis to Make
Schedule Trade-offs
• Free slack or free float is the amount of time an
activity can be delayed without delaying the early
start of any immediately following activities
• Total slack or total float is the amount of time an
activity may be delayed from its early start without
delaying the planned project finish date

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Expediting a project

• When a project is falling behind schedule, a system analyst

has a chance to speed up the process to complete the project
in the time desired. This process is referred as expediting.

• For every activity in PERT, there is an estimated time to

complete it. However, it is possible to reduce the estimated
time by allocating more resources (ie. money).

• This time is referred as the crash time, which is the absolute

minimum time required for a task.
PERT chart with crash time factor

1. Prepare a table with the crash time and cost required.

2. List all the possible paths.
3. Select all possible combinations of tasks from the critical
path(s) that will reduce the project length by one day.
4. Find the cheapest task (or tasks) from step 3.
a) if there is more than one choice for the cheapest option, select the
one that affects the greatest no. of paths.
b) if there is still more than one choice, select the one that is nearest to
the end of the project.
5. Calculate the cost required.
6. Adjust the length(s) of the critical path(s).
7. Repeat the steps 3-6 until no further reduction is possible.
Example 4
1. Prepare a table with the crash time and cost required.

Task Normal Crash Crash Days left to reduce

Duration Time Cost
(days) (days) ($/day)
a 20 20 900
b 10 6 600
c 5 3 200
d 7 5 400
e 12 10 50
f 8 7 100
 2. List all the possible paths.

(i) a - b - e - f = 20 + 10 + 12 + 8= 50 days (critical path)

(ii) a - c - e - f = 20 + 5 + 12 + 8 = 45 days
(iii) a - d - e - f = 20 + 7 + 12 + 8 = 47 days

3. For steps 3 - 6, use the following table.

Days Possible Task(s) Path length Cost Total
reduced task(s) chosen (i) (ii) (iii) cost
Example 4
Task Normal Crash Crash Days
Duration Time Cost left to
(days) (days) ($/day) reduce

a 20 20 900
b 10 6 600
c 5 3 200
d 7 5 400
e 12 10 50
f 8 7 100

Paths

(i) a - b - e - f = 20 + 10 + 12 + 8 = 50 days (critical path)

(ii) a - c - e - f = 20 + 5 + 12 + 8 = 45 days
(iii) a - d - e - f = 20 + 7 + 12 + 8 = 47 days
 Days Possible Task(s) Path length Total
reduced task(s) chosen (i) (ii) (iii) Cost cost
There are other ways of
presenting the activities in a
project.

One of these is a Gantt chart.

Let us start with very quick

overview but there will be a lot
more later in the semester.
Gantt Charts
• Gantt charts provide a standard format for
displaying project schedule information by listing
project activities and their corresponding start
and finish dates in a calendar format
• Symbols include:
– Black diamonds: milestones
– Thick black bars: summary tasks
– Lighter horizontal bars: durations of tasks
– Arrows: dependencies between tasks

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 Gantt Chart for Project

Note: Darker bars would be red in Project 2010 to represent critical tasks.

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Gantt Chart for Software Launch Project

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Adding Milestones to Gantt Charts

• Many people like to focus on meeting

milestones, especially for large projects
• Milestones emphasize important events or
accomplishments on projects
• Normally create milestone by entering tasks
with a zero duration, or you can mark any
task as a milestone

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Task Dependency Types

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