BODY IN SPORT

MYERSCOUGH COLLEGE
NATIONAL DIPLOMA

EDITED BY GRANT ORMEROD

 Learning Outcomes
1.Understand the skeleton and how it is
affected by exercise
2.Understand the muscular system and
how it is affected by exercise
3.Understand the cardiovascular system
and how it is affected by exercise
4.Understand the respiratory system and
how it is affected by exercise
5.Know the fundamentals of the energy
systems
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
 Learning Outcomes
List a selection of bones within the human
skeleton
Understand the different types of bone in
the human skeleton
 Humerus
Cranium
Humerus
Clavicle
Vertebrae
Sternum
Radius
Ribs
Ulna
Pelvis
Metacarpals
Femur
Sacrum
Patella
Tibia

Phalanges
Fibula
Metatarsals
1
Vertebral Column

7 Cervical

12 Thoracic

5 Lumbar

5 Fused
Sacrum
4 Coccyx
1
Functions of the Skeleton
To provide support for the body
To provide protection of vital organs
For muscle attachment
To produce red and white blood cells
To store fats and minerals
Bone Growth
– Osteoblasts build bone
– Osteoclasts destroy and re-model bone
 Protection
The Cranium protects
The Brain
The Sternum and Ribs protect
The heart and the lungs by forming a cage
The Vertebral Column protects
The spinal chord which is encased within the
vertebrae
CLASSIFICATION OF
BONE
 Classifications of Bones
The bones of the human skeleton are
divided into 5 sections
The classification is based on the shape of
each bone.
 Bone Types
Long Bone Short Bone Flat Bone
Humerus Tarsals Cranium
Ulna Carpals Scapular
Tibia Metatarsals Clavicle
Fibula Metacarpals Pelvis
Radius Phalanges Sternum
Femur Ribs
Facial Bones
 Bone Types (cont)

Irregular Sesamoid
Vertebrae Patella
Coccyx
 (c) Flat Bone
(b) Short Bone

(d) Irregular Bone

(a) Long Bone

(e) Sesamoid Bone (f) Suture Bone

1
Role and Function
Long bone is used for support and major
bodily movement
Short bone is used for fine and acute
movement
Irregular bone is used for protection of the
spinal cord and also for slight movement
Flat Bone is used for protection (e.g. the
brain) and for muscle attachment
Axial Bones
Appendicular Bones
 Effect on Exercise
The immediate effect on bone during
exercise is not well documented
The recent research suggests that calcium
build up and blood generation increases
The long term effects on the bone shows
an increase in the density and overall
growth.
There has to be short term effect in order
to be long term effects
THE JOINTS
 Joints
Structural classification based upon:
– Presence or absence of space between bones
– Type of connective tissue holding bones together
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
Functional classification based upon
movement:
– immovable = synarthrosis
– slightly movable = amphiarthrosis
– freely movable = diarthrosis
 Fibrous
A fibrous joint or a fixed joint has no
movement at all. There is no joint cavity, and
the bones are held together by tough fibrous
tissue. E.g. the skull
 Cartilaginous Joint
A cartilaginous joint allows some slight movement.
The ends of bones, which are covered in articular
or hyaline cartilage are separated by pads of
fibrocartilage. In addition the pads of cartilage act
as shock absorbers. E.g. The vertebrae
 Synovial Joint
A synovial joint is a freely moving joint and is
characterised by the presence of a synovial cavity.
The bony surfaces, covered by articular cartilage,
are separated by a joint cavity and enclosed by a
fibrous capsule lined by a synovial membrane.
 Synovial Joint
Coxal bone
Joint cavity
Articular cartilage
Synovial
membrane
Ligament
Joint capsule
Femur
 Component and Functions
Hyaline Cartilage
Covers the ends of the articulating bone.
This smoothes and facilitates gliding
movements between the bone ends.
Joint Capsule
This is a fibrous tissue encasing the joint,
forming a capsule.
 Component and Functions
Joint Capsule
Small gap between the bones that is filled
with synovial fluid
Ligaments
White fibrous connective tissue, joining
bone to bone. They restrict the amount of
movement that can occur at the joint.
 Component and Functions
Synovial Fluid
Synovial fluid fills the joint capsule, it nourishes
and lubricates the articular cartilage.
Synovial Membrane
The synovial membrane acts as a lining to the
joint capsule and secretes synovial fluid
Tendons
This is a tissue that connects muscle to bone
 Saddle Joint
A saddle joint allows
movement back and
forth and up and
down, but does not
allow for rotation like
a ball and socket
joint.
 Pivot
Pivot joints allow
rotation around an
axis. The neck and
forearms have pivot
joints. In the
forearms the radius
and ulna twist
around each other.
 Gliding
In a gliding or plane
joint bones slide past
each other. In the
wrist and foot the
midcarpal and
midtarsal joints are
gliding joints
 Hinge
This joint has only
two movements an
extension and flexion.
Just like on the hinge
of a door opening and
closing.
 Ball and Socket
A ball and socket
joint allows for radial
movement in almost
any direction. They
are found in the hips
and shoulders
 Ellipsoid / Condyloid
Ellipsoid joints are
similar to a ball and
socket joint. They
allow the same type
of movement but to a
lesser magnitude.
The wrist is an
ellipsoid joint.
 Type of cartilage Role and Function Location in the human
body
1. Yellow elastic This type of cartilage In the ear
cartilage is soft and slightly
elastic
2. Hyaline or articular Absorbs the shock At the ends of long
cartilage occurring at joints bones
from weight bearing
activity, and protects
bones from the
constant wear and
tear of movement.

3. White fibrocartilage It improves joint Between the vertebra

stability, acts as a
shock absorber,
reduces friction, and
helps to prevent
damage to bones.
 Effects on Exercise
The immediate effect in the synovial joints
during exercise are mainly for lubrication
An increase in synovial fluid is eminent,
this is to make movement fluent.
The long term effects show that the
muscles inside and around the joint
strengthen.
The thickness of the hyaline cartilage
increases, however older age can show
decreases
BODY MOVEMENTS
 Summary of Movements at
Synovial Joints
Gliding
– Flat bone surfaces move back-and forth and from
side-to-side with respect to one another. No
significant alteration in the angle between the
bones. –limited due to structure. Example:
intercarpal and intertarsal joints
2

Angular movements
– increase or decrease in angle between articulating
bones
flexion, extension, hyperextension – head forward and back
adduction, abduction
circumduction is a combination of above movements
Rotation
– bone revolves around its own axis
Special movements
– uniquely named movements for jaw, hand and foot
2
Angular Movements
Flexion – there is a decrease in the angle between
articulating bones
Extension – there is an increase in the angle between
articulating bones
Hyperextension – continuation of extension beyond the
anatomical position.
Abduction – is the movement of a bone away from the
midline (along the frontal plane)
Adduction – is the movement of a bone toward the
midline (along the frontal plane)
Circumduction – movement of the distal end of a body
part in a circle
Rotation – bone revolves around its own longitudinal
axis.
2
Flexion, Extension & Hyperextension
2
Abduction and Adduction

Condyloid joints

Ball and Socket

joints
2
Circumduction
Movement of a distal end of a body part in a circle
Combination of flexion, extension, adduction and
abduction
Occurs at ball and socket, saddle and condyloid joints
2
Rotation
Bone revolves around its
own longitudinal axis
– medial rotation is turning
of anterior surface in
towards the midline
– lateral rotation is turning
of anterior surface away
from the midline
At ball & socket and
pivot type joints
2
Special Movements of Mandible

Elevation = upward
Depression = downward
Protraction = forward
Retraction = backward
2
Special Hand & Foot
Movements
Inversion
Eversion
Dorsiflexion-direction
of superior
Plantarflexion-
direction of inferior
Pronation-posterior
Supination-anterior
2
Movement checklist
FOOTBALL
Sporting activities & Movement types Description of Bones involved in Muscles involved
joints involved (circle) movement & activity in activity
Example

The kicking action Flexion The plants non Vertebrae Quadriceps

Ball socket of hip Extension kicking foot. Femur Hamstrings
Rotation Kicking foot
Hinge joint at the Tibia Gastrocnemius
Plantar flexion hyper-extends
knee Fibula Souleus
at the hip and
Ankle joint then flexes, the Meta-Tarsal
Spine knee flexes
and the ankle
joint locks in
plantar flexion
on contact.
1
Merit 1
To achieve a merit in your first assignment
you will need compare the role of bone,
muscle and joints in three different actions.
E.g. In golf, the bones don’t experience
any heavy pressure or intense collisions
such as football. The muscles are used in
one motion whereas footballers are
constantly using their leg muscles
1
Distinction 1
A critical evaluation is required in this
section. This means using a great deal of
detail about how the bones muscles and
joints are used.
E.g. Explain about the different injuries
sustained, if you played a lot of all three
sports you wont become a professional
because of the difference in physical
requirements.
THE MUSCLES
 Learning Outcomes
Identify a selection of muscles
Understand the microstructure of muscle
Describe the structure of the sarcomere
Explain the sliding filament theory
Differentiate and explain fast and slow
twitch fibers
Types of Example Role and Appearance Level of
muscle function under conscious
microscope control
Cardiac Heart Pump blood Striated Individual
muscle around the (striped), cannot control
body fibres criss- muscle
cross consciously
(you can’t
cause your
heart to stop).

Involuntary Smooth muscles Help liquids Smooth Individual

muscle e.g. muscle (blood, food cannot control
surrounding etc) pass muscle
intestine through tubes consciously.
in the body
Voluntary Movement of Striated Can be
Skeletal (striped),
muscle the body consciously
muscles – e.g. fibres run
Bicep or controlled by
parallel to individual
hamstring each other
1

DELTOIDS BICEPS BRACHII

TRICEPS BRACHII
PECTORALIS MAJOR

RECTUS ABDOMINIS

SARTORIUS

QUADRICEPS
1

TRAPEZIUS
TIBIALIS ANTERIOR
RHOMBOIDS
LATISSIMUS DORSI
ERECTOR SPINAE
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS

ADDUCTORS
HAMSTRINGS

SOLEUS GASTROCNEMIUS
Student Label Task
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
Human body contains over 400 skeletal
muscles
– 40-50% of total body weight
Functions of skeletal muscle
– Force production for locomotion and breathing
– Force production for postural support
– Heat production during cold stress
 Types of Muscle
Skeletal = voluntary, this is muscle that
you can chose to move when you wish to
move it
Involuntary = smooth, this is muscle which
you can not control, lungs, throat, other
internal organs
Heart = cardiac, this is muscle surrounding
the heart, its make up is different to that of
skeletal muscle
 Learning Outcomes
Explain features of isometric contraction
Explain features of isotonic contraction
Explain features of isokinetic contraction
Identify and describe the different roles of
muscles movements
 Isometric
Features of isometric muscle
Isometric (static)- contraction
tension is developed 1
Muscles do not change length
by the muscle whilst contracting
however there is no 2
Good for strength training
change in the length
of the muscle (F=R) 3
No cardiovascular benefit

4
Gives a rapid strength increase

5
Not good for stamina training
b. Which of the following sporting actions
would be a good example of an isometric
muscle action? Delete those skills not
relevant.
Throwing a Javelin
Running 100m
Rugby scrum
Kicking a football
 Isotonic
Isotonic (dynamic)- tension is developed as the
muscle either lengthens or shortens
– Concentric- muscle shortens (Force>Resist.)
Muscle length Effect on Example
movement
Concentric Shortens Causes Bicep lifting arm during bicep curl.
movement Quadriceps causing lower leg to
swing forward when kicking a ball.

Eccentric Controls Tricep lowering arm during bicep

Lengthens
movement curl.
Deltoid and latissimus dorsi
controlling downward phase of a
pull up.
 Isokinetic
Isokinetic- dynamic exercise in which muscle
contraction occurs against constant speed of
movement
Features of isokinetic muscle contraction

1 Muscle lengthens or shortens

2 Force remains constant throughout motion
3 Needs specialist equipment
4 Good strength training
 Example Advantage Disadvantage

Isometric Holding a bar  Requires minimal  No Cardiovascular benefit

bell, in a set equipment  Not good for stamina
position  Gives a rapid strength  Individual can fatigue
increase. quickly
 Easy to target certain  No improvement in motor
muscles performance

Isotonic Running  Improves strength and  Takes longer to develop

cardiovascular system muscular strength
 Trains muscle in real  Higher risk of injury due to
sporting situation shock, and repetitive use
 Trains other muscles as of joints
well
 Increases range of
movement at joints

Isokinetic Specialist  Improves muscular  Machinery is very

machine – strength and endurance expensive
straightening of  Machines can be set so  Only 1 person can use it at
lower leg movement is same once
speed as in competition  Can be boring
 Muscles don’t have to  Can only be used in a
lower resistance, so less limited number of
muscle soreness exercises
TYPES OF MUSCLE
ACTIONS
 Muscles Assorted Roles
Agonist – the muscle primarily involved in
movement also referred to as prime mover
Antagonist – muscle opposite of prime mover.
Acts in relaxation
Stabilizers – muscles whose contraction helps
to stabilize a joint during movement
Synergists – muscles which assist in refined
and properly coordinated movement of the
agonist
Neutralizers – muscles which act to resist
action by muscles other than prime mover
Using the words in the list below complete
the paragraph to describe the action:
– upwards
– anatagonist
– tricep
– bicep
– lengthening
– agonist
– prime-mover
The muscle that is shortening is the
bicep this is pulling the fore-arm
_______,
_________.
upwards This muscle is known as the
_____________
prime-mover or ________.
agonist The muscle
at the back of the arm, the ______,
tricep is
lengthening
________________ and in doing so
allows the movement to be controlled. The
tricep is known as the __________.
antagonist
 Muscle action Description
Prime-mover Muscle shortens, creating the motion

Antagonist Muscle relaxes (lengthens) whilst the prime

mover is shortening and controls the speed of
movement
Fixator This stabilises the shoulder joint so that the
contracting bicep doesn’t pull the arm away
from the shoulder.
Helping synergist This helps the biceps to lift the lower arm.

True synergist Muscle contracts to prevent an undesired

motion
 Effects of Exercise
The short term effect of muscle when
exercising usually results the breaking up
of the muscle fibres.
The long term effects of muscle in
exercise is called hypertrophy, this in a nut
shell is an increase in muscle size due to
the increase of the muscle fibre thickness.
LEVERS
 BONE MUSCLE RELATIONSHIP
LEVER SYSTEMS
Lever system – consists of a rigid bar ( lever)
which moves on a fixed point ( fulcrum) when a
force is applied( effort) to move a resistance( load)
The bones and muscles in the body act as lever
systems
 Bones - levers
 Joints - fulcrum
 Muscles contracting - effort
 Resistance (load) - bone itself + all related structures
LEVER SYSTEM
 TYPES OF LEVERS
First class levers-
Fulcrum lies between the effort and the load( see-saw)
Effort is applied at one end and load lies on the other end

Second class levers

Load lies between effort and fulcrum( wheelbarrow)
Greater strength, less speed and range of action

Third class levers

Effort lies between load and function fast large movements
with little effort
Most skeletal muscles are of this type
 Paint Tin
Paint tin lid = First class

Pivot is in the middle of the

arrangement, notice that the effort and
resistance are in opposite directions.
 Wheelbarrow

Wheelbarrow = Second class

Resistance is in the middle, notice that

effort and resistance both move up in this
arrangement.
Fishing Rod

Fishing rod = Third class

Effort is in the middle, again effort

and resistance move in same
direction.
In the body the ______
bones act as the bar.

In the body the _____

joints act as the pivot.

weight of body part act as the

In the body the ________________
resistance.

muscles act as the effort.

In the body the _________
First Class
Second Class
Third Class
THE ENERGY SYSTEM
The human body is made to move
in many ways:
• Quick and powerful
• Graceful & coordinated
• Sustained for many hours

And is dependent upon the capacity to

produce energy
 We have a great amount of
diversity
• Quick movements-lasts a few seconds
• Reduced speed-lasts for several minutes
• Reduced intensity(50%)-lasts for several
hours

The body uses different energy systems for

each activity
Cells in the body need energy to
function

FOOD=ENERGY (E)
Cells don’t get Energy directly from
food, it must be broken down into:

ATP-Adensosine TRIphosphate

ATP = a form of energy one can

immediately use, it is needed for
cells to function & muscles to
contract
 Nutrients that give us energy:
Carbohydrates Glucose
Fats Fatty acids
Digestion
Proteins Amino Acids

Absorbed into the blood & transported to cells

(muscle, liver & nerve)

They are used to produce ATP or stored

ATP is stored in small amounts, therefore
the rest is stored as:

•Glucose = Glycogen (muscle & liver)

•Fatty Acids = Body fat

•Amino Acids = Growth, repair or excreted

as waste
Predominant Energy Pathways

•ATP (2-3 seconds)

•ATP-CP Energy System (8-10 seconds)

•Anaerobic Energy System (2-3 minutes)

•Aerobic Energy System (3 minutes +)

0 sec 4 sec 10 sec 1.5 min 3 min +

Strength – Power:
power lift, shot put, golf swing

Sustained Power:
sprints, fast breaks, football

Anaerobic Power – Endurance:

200-400 m dash, 100 m swim

Aerobic Endurance:
Beyond 800 m run

Immediate/short-term Aerobic-oxidative
non-oxidative systems system
 ATP-CP Energy System
ATP is stored in the muscle & liver for “Quick
Energy”

• Nerve impulses trigger breakdown of ATP into

ADP
• ADP = Adenosine Diphosphate & 1 Phosphate
• The splitting of the Phosphate bond = Energy for
work

Ex. Muscle Contraction, Moving hand from a hot

stove, Jumping & Throwing
 The ATP Molecule
a. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Adenosine P
P
P

b. The breakdown of ATP:

Adenosine P
P P
Energy
Energy for cellular function

ATP = ADP + energy for biological work + P

(ADP = Adenosine Diphosphate)

For contractions to continue… ATP must be
REBUILT
This comes from the splitting of CP (Creatine
Phosphate a Hi energy source, automatic)

When ATP is used – it is rebuilt – as long as

there is CP
Energy released from CP breaking down,
resynthesizes the ADP & P
REMEMBER – only small amounts of ATP are
stored = only 2-3 sec. of Energy

ATP-CP = 8-10 sec. of Energy

The usefulness isn’t the AMOUNT of Energy

but the QUICK & POWERFUL movements

For longer periods of work = The

Aerobic & Anaerobic Energy System must be
utilized
 The Immediate Resynthesis of ATP by CP
a. Creatine Phosphate (CP)

Creatine
High energy bond P

b. CP = Creatine + energy for resynthesis of ATP + P

Creatine P

Energy

c. ADP + energy from CP + P = ATP (reversal of ATP = ADP + P + energy for work)

Adenosine P
P
P
 Anaerobic Energy System
• Without oxygen = Activities that require a
large burst of energy over a short period of
time
• Anaerobic Glycolysis = Production of ATP
from Carbohydrates without oxygen
(breakdown of glucose)
Since glycogen is stored in the muscle &
liver, it is available quickly

This system provides ATP when ATP-CP runs

out

Again, ATP-CP lasts for a few seconds, the

Anaerobic Energy System allows for 2-3
minutes of work
1. The process to produce ATP is not as fast
as ATP-CP, which makes muscle
contraction slower
2. When oxygen is not present the end
product of glycolysis is lactic acid, which
causes the muscles to fatigue
3. Anaerobic Glycolysis is less efficient in
producing ATP than Aerobic Glycolysis, BUT
is needed for a large burst of energy
lasting a few minutes
 Without Oxygen

Glucose = 2ATP + 2LA

(digested component of carbohydrates)

Glycogen = 3ATP + 2LA

(the storage form of glucose)
 With Oxygen

Glucose + O2 = 36ATP + H2O + CO2

Fatty Acids + O2 = 129ATP

Body Fat is a great source of ENERGY

Oxygen Deficit = The body can not supply
enough O2 to the muscles that the muscles
demand
•When the muscle does not get enough
oxygen, exhaustion is reached causing
immediate and involuntary reduction in
intensity

Oxygen Debt = “pays back” the deficit

recovery time
 Aerobic Energy System
• With Oxygen = Using large muscle groups
continuously over a period of time

• Aerobic Glycolisis & Fatty Acid Oxidation =

The production of ATP from
Carbohydrates & Fat
1. O2 enters the system, stopping the
breakdown of glycogen to lactic acid
2. With oxygen, glycogen breaks down
into: ATP + CO2 + H20
3. These byproducts are easier to get rid of

CO2 is expelled by the lungs

H20 is used in the muscle
4.Anaerobic Energy System =
Carbohydrates are the only fuel source
5.With prolonged exercise, Carbohydrates
are the first fuel choice, as exercise
continues, FAT becomes predominant
6.Protein is not a main fuel source except
in an emergency
•Each system plays an important role in
energy production
•This gives us a variety of movements

•The systems interact to supply Energy for

the activity
 Examples

Anaerobic 70-80% Anaerobic Aerobic

20-30% Aerobic

Wt. Training Stop & Go Sports Jogging

Gymnastics Tennis Marathons
Football Soccer Cycling
Baseball Field Hockey Aerobic Dance
 Sport Energy system (s)
100m sprint ATP-PC
400m sprint ATP-PC and Lactic acid
3000m Lactic acid and aerobic
Long jump ATP-PC
Marathon Aerobic
Tennis ATP-PC, lactic acid, aerobic
Shot putt ATP-PC
Badminton ATP-PC, lactic acid, aerobic
100m swimming ATP-PC and Lactic acid
 Time Description Energy system (s)
(min:sec)
0:00 Sprint start to get to front of pack ATP-PC

0:10 Moving quickly to get into good position ATP-PC and Lactic acid

1:00 Settle into normal running pace Lactic acid

3:00 Climb hill – pace slows down Aerobic

21:00 Start sprint finish to catch person in Aerobic and lactic acid
front
22:00 Quick burst of speed to dive for the line. Lactic acid and ATP-PC

22:10 End of race Aerobic

 Position Energy system (s) Explanation
Goalkeeper ATP-PC Requires short bursts of energy,
usually for less than 10 seconds

Centre defence ATP-PC, Lactic acid Defender again works in short bursts, but
often up to a couple of minutes. When
side is attacking, defender can recover.

Wing defence Lactic acid and aerobic

Wing defender will require bursts of
energy when defending, and when side
is attacking will push forwards, using
aerobic system
Centre midfield ATP-PC, Lactic acid, aerobic The centre midfield has to provide short
bursts of speed, as well as moving for
the whole game. This requires all of the
energy systems to be used.

Wing midfield ATP-PC, Lactic acid, aerobic Again often required to give short burst
of energy when making a run down the
line, as well as moving for whole
game.
Centre forward ATP-PC, lactic acid
This varies from player to player. The
goal hanger will require the quick bursts
(possibly aerobic) of energy using ATP-PC and lactic acid
system. The centre forward who runs
around a lot, will require all 3 systems.
Activity Calories burned
per hour
Bicycling 6 mph 240
Bicycling 12 mph 410
Jogging 5.5 mph 740
Jogging 7 mph 920
Running 10 mph 1,280
Swimming 50 yds/min 500
Tennis (singles) 400
Walking 2 mph 240
Walking 4 mph 440
 Revision Questions
1. Which movement is:
The bending of a joint?
Taking a limb towards the midline of the body?
Turning about it’s own central axis?

2. Which movements are possible at

The knee?
The shoulder?
The spine?
3) If you stand up from sitting in a chair only using
your legs, what movement do you get at
The hip?
The knee?

4a) Which muscle type is only found in the heart?

4b) What is the purpose of involuntary muscle?

4c) Is skeletal muscle voluntary or involuntary?

5) Which muscle or muscles causes the
following motions
Flexion at the elbow?
Abduction of the shoulder?
Extension of the knee?
On the following drawings of levers label the:
1. Pivot
2. Resistance
3. Effort

Opening A tin of paint, A wheelbarrow, A fishing rod

A fishing rod Opening a tin of A wheelbarrow

paint

In the boxes each diagram, add which class of lever each type is.
7a) Which class lever does standing up on tip toes fall into?

7b) Which class of lever does nodding the head fall into?

7c) Which class lever does lifting the arm at the elbow fall
into?

8a) Which substance breaks down to provide the energy

that drives muscles?

8b) If glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen,

which waste product is produced?

8c) What effect does this have on muscles?

8d) In a medium distance race athletes are often described

as getting their “second wind”. In reality they are moving
from 1 system to another. Which systems would they be?
THE HEART
 THE HEART
The Heart is a hollow four-chambered
muscular organ which sits in-between the
lungs
cardiac
The walls consist of mainly …………..
muscle
 Learning Outcomes
Understand the terminology and anatomy
of the heart
To be able to describe the various
functions of the heart
 Aorta
Superior Vena Cava

Left Pulmonary
Right Pulmonary Arteries
Arteries
Right Pulmonary Left Pulmonary
Veins Veins

Left Atrium
Semi Luna Valve Mitral Valve

Right Atrium Aortic Value

Left Ventricle
Tricuspid Valve

Right Ventricle
Septum
Inferior Vena Cava
The four chambers of the heart are:

Right Atrium
Right Ventricle
Left Atrium
Left Ventricle
What is the function of the valves found
between the top and bottom chambers of
the heart?
To prevent the backflow of blood
Describe how the cardiac muscle, found in
the heart wall, differs from skeletal muscle
found in the quadriceps.
Cardiac muscle is involuntary, skeletal
muscle is voluntary
Cardiac muscle has interwoven muscle
fibres, skeletal muscle fibres run
parallel
Explain why the wall surrounding the
bottom chambers appears more muscular
than that of the top chambers.
More force is required to eject blood
from the ventricles around the rest of
the body and to the lungs, than to pass
from the atria to the ventricles.
 Anatomy
aorta - the biggest and longest artery (a
blood vessel carrying blood away from the
heart) in the body. It carries oxygen-rich
blood from the left ventricle of the heart to
the body.
inferior vena cava - a large vein (a blood
vessel carrying blood to the heart) that
carries oxygen-poor blood to the right
atrium from the lower half of the body.
left atrium - the left upper chamber of the
heart. It receives oxygen-rich blood from
the lungs via the pulmonary vein.
left ventricle - the left lower chamber of
the heart. It pumps the blood through the
aortic valve into the aorta.
mitral valve - the valve between the left
atrium and the left ventricle. It prevents the
back-flow of blood from the ventricle to the
atrium.
pulmonary artery - the blood vessel that
carries oxygen-poor blood from the right
ventricle of the heart to the lungs.
pulmonary valve - the flaps between the
right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
When the ventricle contracts, the valve
opens, causing blood to rush into the
pulmonary artery. When the ventricle
relaxes, the valves close, preventing the
back-flow of blood from the pulmonary
artery to the right atrium.
pulmonary vein - the blood vessel that
carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to
the left atrium of the heart.
right atrium - the right upper chamber of
the heart. It receives oxygen-poor blood
from the body through the inferior vena
cava and the superior vena cava.
right ventricle - the right lower chamber
of the heart. It pumps the blood into the
pulmonary artery.
septum - the muscular wall that separates
the left and right sides of the heart.
superior vena cava - a large vein that
carries oxygen-poor blood to the right
atrium from the upper parts of the body.
tricuspid valve - the flaps between the
right atrium and the right ventricle. It is
composed of three leaf-like parts and
prevents the back-flow of blood from the
ventricle to the atrium.
The heart is designed to ensure ……… blood flows
efficiently around the body. It is protected by
theribs sternum and is found to the left
….. and …………, …..
of the chest.
The heart has four
……. chambers. The top
chambers are called atria
……. and the bottom
ventricles . Blood from
chambers are called ……………
the top chamber on the left is received from
the pulmonary
…………………. vein and the top chamber on
vena cava .
the right from the…………...
Blood is then passed into the bottom
chambers where it is directed to the………lungs
round the body
…….. general circulation.
Blood travelling through the left side of the
oxygenated blood and
heart is said to be ……………………...
blood travelling through the right side of
de-oxygenated
the heart is said to be ……………………
blood .
………
 Arteries Veins

Take blood from Heart Muscles

Take blood to Muscles Heart

Blood pressure High Low

Vessel walls Thick Thin

 Heart Facts
Every day, the heart pumps about 2,000
gallons (7,600 liters) of blood, beating
about 100,000 times.
In a 70-year lifetime, the average human
heart beats more than 2.5 billion times
An adult woman’s heart weighs about 8
ounces, a man’s about 10 ounces
 INVESTIGATION TO
MONITOR HEART RATE
 Learning Outcomes
To identify the different sites to take and
monitor heart rate
To describe the differences that occur
when taking heart rate in a variety of
positions
To gain an understanding of the electrical
influences in the heart
INVESTIGATION TO MONITOR THE
HEART RATE

Monitor your resting heart rate by pulse

at the carotid artery and radial artery
Count for 60 seconds to calculate your
resting heart rate in beats per minute
TIMER
 Task 2
Now do this using both sites, but for lying
down and also standing up.
You have a two minute period to stabilise
your heart rate
 Task 3
Are there any differences between the pulse
taken at the radial and carotid arteries? Give
reasons for your answer
The pulse represents a wave sent through
the arteries when the heart muscle
contracts and blood is ejected from the
heart. The pulse should be stronger in the
carotid artery than the brachial artery due
to the distance of the wave away from the
heart.
Consider the differences in heart rate
between your group. What factors may
affect these results?
Level of physical fitness
Age
Exercise prior to the lesson
Diet / caffeine intake
Emotions
How does the position of the individual
affect heart rate? Give reasons for your
answer.
Heart rate would be higher when
standing than lying down, or sitting.
The body is relaxed, on muscular
activity required to support the body
in the lying position. There is also
less gravity to work against.
BLOOD FLOW AROUND
THE HEART
 Learning Outcomes
To describe the movement of blood
through the heart and the body
To understand the terminology of the heart
and blood flow.
 Lungs
Pulmonary Vein
Pulmonary Artery

RA LA

RV LV

Vena Cava
Aorta

Muscles and Organs

 Thermoregulations
This is the maintenance of core body
temperature
With normal circulation the blood reaches
the capillaries in order to keep the body
temperature around 37o
The thermoreceptors are responsive to the
changes in body temperature
 Heart Facts
The crocodile was the first animal to
develop a four-chambered heart (like
ours).
Enough power is generated in the heart in
one day to drive a car 20 miles
Blood is about 78 percent water
Blood takes about 20 seconds to circulate
throughout the entire vascular system
THE CARDIAC CYCLE
 Learning Outcomes
To be able to describe the phases of blood
flow through the heart
To list the terminology used when
describing blood flow
Atria chambers fill
with blood via the
pulmonary vein and
the vena cava
Atria-ventricular
valves are closed
The atria contract
and the blood
forces open the
atria-ventricular
valves
Blood then pours
into the venticles
Once the ventricles
are filled, the atria-
ventricular values
are closed
Blood begins to
force open the semi
lunar values
As the ventricles
contract, more
blood flows into the
atria
The contraction
forces rapid
ejection of blood
through the semi
lunar values
Atria become full
Ventricles are at
full contraction
Blood flows
through the
arteries to the rest
of the body and to
the lungs
 INVESTIGATION TO
MONITOR HEART RATE
 Learning Outcomes
To identify the different sites to take and
monitor heart rate
To describe the differences that occur
when taking heart rate in a variety of
positions
To gain an understanding of the electrical
influences in the heart
INVESTIGATION TO MONITOR THE
HEART RATE

Monitor your resting heart rate by pulse

at the carotid artery and radial artery
Count for 60 seconds to calculate your
resting heart rate in beats per minute
TIMER
 Task 2
Now do this using both sites, but for lying
down and also standing up.
You have a two minute period to stabilise
your heart rate
 Task 3
Are there any differences between the pulse
taken at the radial and carotid arteries? Give
reasons for your answer
The pulse represents a wave sent through
the arteries when the heart muscle
contracts and blood is ejected from the
heart. The pulse should be stronger in the
carotid artery than the brachial artery due
to the distance of the wave away from the
heart.
Consider the differences in heart rate
between your group. What factors may
affect these results?
Level of physical fitness
Age
Exercise prior to the lesson
Diet / caffeine intake
Emotions
How does the position of the individual
affect heart rate? Give reasons for your
answer.
Heart rate would be higher when
standing than lying down, or sitting.
The body is relaxed, on muscular
activity required to support the body
in the lying position. There is also
less gravity to work against.
RESPIRATION
 Learning Outcomes
Identify the four main blood vessels
Understand the terminology used in
respiration
Explain the functions of the respiratory
system
Identify and explain the pathway of gases
through the respiratory system
Four main blood vessels
Pulmonary Veins
Pulmonary Arteries
Aorta
Vena Cava
 Respiration
The primary function of the respiratory
system is to supply the body with oxygen
while removing carbon dioxide.

"Respiration" is actually several distinct

processes
 Terminology
Ventilation - movement of air into/out of the
lungs.
External Respiration - gas exchange between
blood and the air-filled chambers of the lungs.
Transport of gases between the lungs and the
rest of the body tissues.
Internal Respiration - gas exchange between
systemic blood and the tissue cells.
Cellular Respiration - the mitochondrial
process in which oxygen is utilized during ATP
synthesis.
Functions of The Respiratory System

Oxygen intake
Expulsion of carbon dioxide
Sound/voice production
Regulation of plasma pH
Removal/destruction of airborne
pathogens and toxins.
3
Nasal Cavity

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Alveoli
3
Nasal Passages
The air is drawn into the body through the
nose. The nasal cavity is divided by a
cartilaginous septum that forms the néasal
passages. Here the mucous membranes
warm and moisten the air and the hair (cilia)
filters and traps dust.
3
Nasal Cavity

Nostril
Pharynx
Oral Cavity
Trachea
Larynx
Site of
Carina
Right Primary
Bronchus
Left Primary
Right Lung Bronchus

Left Lung

Diaphragm
3
The pharynx and the larynx
The throat is the entry to both the respiratory
and alimentary tracts, and both food and air
pass through. Air passes over the vocal
cords of the larynx and into the trachea.
Swallowing draws the larynx upwards
against the epiglottis and prevents food
going into the trachea. Food is sent down
the oesophagus
3
Nasal Cavity

Nostril
Pharynx
Oral Cavity
Trachea
Larynx
Site of
Carina
Right Primary
Bronchus
Left Primary
Right Lung Bronchus

Left Lung

Diaphragm
3
Trachea
This is sometimes called the windpipe. It is
lined with a mucous membrane and ciliated
cells, which trap dust, and contains 18 rings
of cartilage to keep it open and protect it.
The trachea goes from the larynx to the
primary bronchi.
3
Nasal Cavity

Nostril
Pharynx
Oral Cavity
Trachea
Larynx
Site of
Carina
Right Primary
Bronchus
Left Primary
Right Lung Bronchus

Left Lung

Diaphragm
3
Bronchi and Bronchioles
The trachea divides into two bronchi – the
right bronchus goes into the right lung and
similar with the left bronchus. The bronchi
then divides into the smaller bronchioles.
The bronchioles enable the air to pass
through into the alveoli where diffusion takes
place.
3
Nasal Cavity

Nostril
Pharynx
Oral Cavity
Trachea
Larynx
Site of
Carina
Right Primary
Bronchus
Left Primary
Right Lung Bronchus

Left Lung

Diaphragm
3
Alveoli
These tiny air-filled sacs are the site of
gaseous exchange between the lungs and
the blood. There are many millions alveoli in
the lung, which provides an enormous
surface area (some have estimated the size
of a tennis court). The walls of the alveoli
are extremely thin and moist, which allows
oxygen from the inspired air to dissolve. The
exchange. The exchange of the oxygen is
illustrated in the following picture.
3
3
Diaphragm
As we breathe in, the diaphragm contracts
and depresses so that a lot of air enters and
fills up the lungs. The ribs are therefore
raised. When we breathe out, the ribs return
to their original position and the diaphragm
relaxes and arches upwards. The air is
forced out of the lungs and returns the same
way it came.
Anatomical structures of the respiratory
system include: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and
alveoli. We can divide these structures into
conducting zones and respiratory zones.
Conducting zones transport, cleanse, warm and
humidify incoming air. They are not involved in
gas exchange. The conducting portions include
the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
all bronchi, and all bronchioles except for the
respiratory bronchioles

The respiratory zones function in gas exchange.

They include respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
MECHANICS OF
BREATHING
 Learning Outcome
Describe the movements of the rib cage
when breathing
Explain inspiration and expiration
Understand the meaning of respiratory
rate and the normal readings in humans
Calculate the respiratory rate of a fellow
team mate
Explain the factors that effect breathing
 Task 1
In the table identify what happens to the rib cage
and the space inside the thorax as you inhale
and exhale.
You may wish to place your hands over your rib
cage as you draw a big breath in and send
another out to ‘feel’ the movement.
In the third column identify which antagonistic
muscle pairs are working to create that
movement.
 Mechanics of Breathing
Respiratory Movement of the rib Working
phase cage muscles
Inspiration External intercostals Contract
muscles Contracts
Diaphragm (flattens)

Expiration Internal intercostals Contract

muscles Relaxes (moves
Diaphragm upwards)
 Inspiration
The respiratory muscles contract. These
include the external intercostal muscles and
the diaphragm. The external intercostal
muscles are attached to the ribs, and when
they contract the ribs move upwards. The
diaphragm contract and moves downward,
increasing the thoracic cavity.
 Expiration
The respiratory muscle relax. When the
external intercostal muscles relax, the ribs
are lowered and the diaphragm relaxes. The
volume of the lungs decreased and the
pressure within the lungs becomes greater
than the pressure outside the body. Air is
now forced out to equalize this pressure.
3
Respiratory Rate
The respiration rate is the number of
breaths a person takes per minute. The rate
is usually measured when a person is at rest
and simply involves counting the number of
breaths for one minute by counting how
many times the chest rises.
 Respiratory Rate
Normal respiratory rate in a healthy adult is
between 12 to 20 breaths per minute. (With such
a slow rate, it is best to count the number of
breaths over a full minute for accuracy.)
Respiratory rhythm should be regular.
Respiratory depth (as seen in the amplitude or
excursion of chest wall movement) should also
be the same between breaths.
Subjects may ‘sigh’.
Normal respiratory rates, by age:
Newborns: Average 44 breaths per minute
Infants: 20-40 breaths per minute
Preschool children: 20-30 breaths per
minute
Older children: 16-25 breaths per minute
Adults: 14 to 18 breaths per minute
Older Adults 19-26 breaths per minute
 Respiratory Rate
In pairs sit quietly and observe each other.
As part of your observation count the
breathing rate by watching the rise and fall
of the chest, count each rise and fall as
one breath.
What is their respiratory rate for one
minute?
What factors would cause the breathing
rate to either increase or decrease. List
these under two headings, ‘increase in
breathing’ and ‘decrease in breathing’.
 Increase in Breathing
1. Exercise, both aerobic and anaerobic
2. Adrenaline
3. Anxiety or stress
4. Illness
5. Medical Conditions
 Decrease in Breathing
1. Medical Substances like beta blockers
2. Long term training increases stroke
volume and therefore decreases rate of
breathing
3. Rest after exercise
For air to enter the lungs the ________
pressure in the
atmosphere must be greater than in the _____.
lungs
This pressure difference is created by enlarging
the thoracic
_______ cavity. The contraction of the
intercostals muscles causes the ribs to move
________
upwards and ________.
outwards
When the diaphragm contracts, it _______,
flattens and
the cavity increases, reducing the pressure inside.
Air can be drawn in, because it always moves from
an area of _____
high pressure to one of ____
low
pressure.
IMMEDIATE EFFECTS TO
EXERCISE
 Learning Outcomes
Identify and explains the short term affects
to the body under exercise
2

Even before you start to exercise your

body releases the hormone adrenalin. It
prepares you for action by stimulating the
respiratory and circulatory systems. It is
often associated with nerves, butterflies
in your tummy, rapid breathing, a
quickened heart rate, sweating palms
and sometimes it even makes people
feel sick.
2

During exercise the working muscles

need more oxygen. This process is
referred to as internal or cell
respiration and as a result the levels of
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood start to
rise.
2

Increased levels of CO2 in the blood are

detected by the brain. The brain then
sends a message to the lungs to breathe
faster and deeper in order to expel the
CO2 and so the respiratory rate
increases. Levels of CO2 dictate the rate
of breathing of the body during exercise.
2

The process of gas exchange in the

lungs speeds up as a result of the
increase in the rate of breathing. More
CO2 is absorbed out of the blood and
more oxygen is drawn in.
In order to cope with the working
muscles demand for more oxygen, the
brain sends a message to the heart to
speed up.
2

As a response to this message, the heart

rate increases. More blood is pumped with
each beat of the heart to provide more
oxygen to the working muscles and so the
stroke volume increases. If stroke volume
and heart rate both increase then so too
does cardiac output.
2

Increased cardiac output means that

more blood and therefore oxygen is
being pumped each minute to the
working muscles, and more carbon
dioxide is being carried away.
The arteries and arterioles dilate in order
to accommodate the increased flow of
blood. Dilation of the blood vessels also
keeps blood pressure low.
2

Muscles can receive up to three times

the resting amount of oxygen. Blood flow
can be increased up to 30 times the
resting rate. The working muscles
therefore can receive up to 90 times the
resting amount of oxygen.
2

The working muscles demand for oxygen

means that blood is redirected away from
areas which need it less. For example,
when cycling blood may be redirected
from the gut to the legs.
2

The body's temperature increases as

does the temperature of the blood. To
cope with this increase in temperature
more blood is shunted to the skin surface
where it cools. Sweating cools you be
evaporation.
2
Cardio-Respiratory Functions Effects / Changes

Heart rate Increases

Stroke volume Increases

Cardiac output Increases

Body temperature Increases

Blood flow Re-distribution to working tissues

Aerobic exercise – increase in

systolic pressure
Blood pressure
Anaerobic exercise – increase in
both systolic and diastolic pressure

Breathing rate Increases

2
Cardio-Respiratory Functions Effects / Changes

Tidal volume Increase

Inspiratory reserve volume Decrease

Expiratory reserve volume Slight Decrease

Residual volume Slight Increase

Vital capacity Slight Decrease

Total lung capacity Slight Decrease

Respiratory muscles Increased rate of contraction

Oxygen disassociation Increase

Carbon dioxide production Increase

2

LONG TERM EFFECTS TO

EXERCISE
 Learning Outcomes
Identify and explain the long term affects
when undertaking exercise
2

The body systems adapt to prolonged

exercise and training, so that they can
cope more efficiently with the demands
made on them.
You can train your body to become
stronger, faster and more flexible.
2 BODY SYSTEM LONG TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE

MUSCULAR Muscles develop a bigger blood vessel network.

This feeds more blood (oxygen and energy) to the
muscle
Muscles adapt to using more oxygen. They can
therefore work more efficiently and for a longer time
Increased muscle tone and maybe a reduction in
body fat

RESPIRATORY The muscles used for breathing become stronger

The lungs get bigger, increasing their capacity to
draw in oxygen
An increase in the rate at which carbon-dioxide is
drawn out of the lungs and oxygen is drawn in
2 BODY SYSTEM LONG TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE

CIRCULATORY The heart becomes larger and stronger. More blood is

pumped per beat (stroke volume) and therefore per minute
(cardiac output)
Each heartbeat pumps more blood, so your resting heart
rate falls, while the same amount of blood is pumped
there is an increase in the size and number of blood vessels
feeding the muscles
After endurance training (low intensity, long duration) the
quantity and quality of the blood improves. More red blood
cells are produced. This means that more oxygen can be
transported to and used by the muscles

CARDIO- The combined respiratory and circulatory systems become

VASCULAR more efficient. They take more oxygen and carbon dioxide
to and fro, and they do it more quickly.
2
Cardio-Respiratory Function Adaptations
Cardiac hypertrophy
Heart Increased size of ventricles & walls
Decreased maximum heart rate
Heart rate Bradycardia (decreased resting heart rate)

Stroke volume Increased

Blood pressure Decreased

Blood Increased haemoglobin levels

Increased capillary density surrounding

Blood vessels muscles and lungs
Stronger muscle in vessel walls
Increased alveoli
Gaseous exchange
Increased strength of respiratory muscles

Lung Volumes Increased tidal volume

END OF MODULE