Control System18EE61

Module 1
 Introduction

A control system is a system in which the output quantity

is controlled by varying the input quantity.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control systems may be classified in a number of ways depending on the
purpose of classification.
1. Depending on the hierarchy, control systems may be classified as
(a) Open-loop control systems
(b) Closed-loop control systems
(c) Optimal control systems
(d) Adaptive control systems
(e) Learning control systems
2. Depending on the presence of human being as a part of the control
system, control systems may be classified as
(a) Manually controlled systems
(b) Automatic control systems
3. Depending on the presence of feedback, control systems may be
classified as
(a) Open-loop control systems
(b) Closed-loop control systems or feedback control systems
Feedback control systems may be classified in a number of ways
depending on the purpose of classification.
a) According to the method of analysis and design, control systems may
be classified as linear control systems and nonlinear control systems.

b) Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant

or vary with time, control systems may be classified as time-varying
control systems or time-invariant control systems.

c) According to the types of signals used in the system, control systems

may be classified as
(i) Continuous-data control systems and discrete-data control systems
(ii) ac (modulated) control systems and dc (unmodulated) control
systems.
4. According to the main purpose of the system, control systems may be
classified as
(a) Position control systems
(b) Velocity control systems
(c) Process control systems
(d) Temperature control systems
(e) Traffic control systems, etc.
4. Depending on the application, control systems may be classified as
position control systems, velocity control systems, process control
systems, traffic control systems, etc.
5. Depending on the number of inputs and outputs, control systems may
be
classified as
single-input-single-output (SISO) control systems and multi-input-multi-
output (MIMO) control systems. MIMO systems are also called multivariable
systems.
6. Depending on the number of open-loop poles of the system transfer
function present at the origin of the s-plane, control systems may by
classified as
(a) Type-0
(b) Type-1
7. Depending on the order of the differential equation used to describe the
system, control systems may be classified as
first-order control systems,
second-order control systems, etc.
8. Depending on the type of damping, control systems may be classified as
(a) Undamped systems
(b) Underdamped systems
(c) Critically damped systems
(d) Overdamped systems.
 Open-Loop Control Systems
Those systems in which the output has no
effect on the control action, i.e. on
the input are called open-loop control systems.

Any control system that operates on a time basis is open-loop.

One practical example of an open loop control system is a washing machine—soaking,
washing and rinsing in the washer operate on a time basis. The machine does not
measure the output signal, i.e. the cleanliness of the clothes.

A traffic control system that operates by means of signals on a time basis is another
example of an open-loop control system.
A room heater without any temperature sensing device is also an example of an
open-loop control system.
Closed-Loop Control Systems
‘closed-loop control’ and ‘feedback control’ are used interchangeably.
In a closed-loop control system, the actuating error signal which is the difference between
the input signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal itself or a function
of the output signal and its derivatives and/or integrals) is fed to the controller so as to
reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a desired value.
The reference input corresponds to desired output. The feedback path
elements convert the output to a signal of the same type as that of the
reference signal. The feedback signal is proportional to the output signal and
is fed to the error detector. The error signal generated by the error detector is
the difference between the reference signal and the feedback signal. The
controller modifies and amplifies the error signal to produce better control
action. The modified error signal is fed to the plant to correct its output.
Example
1) In closed-loop traffic control system, the density of the traffic is measured on all the
sides and the information is fed to a computer. The timings of the control signals are
decided by the computer based on the density of traffic.
2) In closed-loop washing machine control system, if the level of cleanliness can be
measured and compared with the desired cleanliness (reference input) and the
difference is used to control the washing time of the machine.
3) In closed-loop Room heating system if a thermostat is provided to measure the actual
temperature, and the actual temperature is compared with the reference, and the
difference is used to control the timing for which the heater is ON.
 Linear versus Nonlinear Control Systems
A system is said to be linear, if the principle of superposition applies. The principle of
superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous application of two
different forcing functions is equal to the sum of the two individual responses.

Linear systems do not exist in practice, since all physical systems are nonlinear to
some extent.
Linear feedback control systems are idealized models fabricated by the analyst for the
analysis and design.
Normally, nonlinear characteristics are intentionally introduced in a control system to
improve its performance, or to provide more effective control.

For linear systems, there exists analytical and graphical techniques for design and analysis
purposes.
Nonlinear systems are usually difficult to treat mathematically, and there are no general
methods available for solving a wide class of nonlinear control systems.
Common nonlinear effects focused in control systems are saturation, backlash, dead play
between coupled gear members, nonlinear spring characteristics, nonlinear friction force or
torque between moving members, and so on

Time-Invariant versus Time-Varying Control

Systems
When the parameters of a control system are stationary with respect to time during the
operation of the system, the system is called a time-invariant system.

If the parameters of a control system vary with respect to time during the operation of the
system, the system is called a time-varying system.

Most physical systems are time-varying system.

The analysis and design of linear time-varying systems are usually much more complex than
that of the linear time-invariant systems.
For example, the winding resistance of an electric motor will vary when the motor is first being
excited and its temperature is rising.
Continuous-Data versus Discrete-Data Control Systems
A continuous-data control system is one in which the signals at various parts
of the system are all functions of the continuous time variable
the signals may be further classified as ac or dc.
An ac control system usually means that the signals in the system are
modulated by some form of modulation scheme.
A dc control system simply implies that the signals are unmodulated, but they
are still ac signals according to the conventional definition
In practice, not all control systems are strictly of the ac or dc type. A system may
incorporate a mixture of ac and dc components using modulators and
demodulators to match the signals at various points in the system.
In Discrete-data control systems the signals at one or more points of the
system are in the form of either a pulse train or digital code.

Usually discrete-data control systems are subdivided into sampled-data

control systems and digital control systems.
In Sampled-data control systems the signals are in the form of pulse data.
A sampled-data control system receives data or information intermittently
at specific instants of time. It can also be classified as an ac system, since
the signal of the system is pulse modulated.
One important advantage of the sampling operation is that expensive
equipment used in the system may be time shared among several control
channels. Another advantage is that pulse data are usually less susceptible
to noise
A digital control system refers to the use of a digital computer or controller
in the system so that the signals are digitally coded, such as in binary code.
digital computers provide many advantages in size and flexibility, computer
control has become increasingly popular in recent years.
Mathematical Models of Physical Systems
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM
ELEMENTS
The motion of mechanical elements can be described as translational,
rotational, or combinations.
Mechanical translational systems
Mechanical translational systems are those in which the motion takes place
along a straight line. The variables that are used to describe the translational
motion are acceleration, velocity and displacement.
Newton’s law of motion for translational systems states that the algebraic
sum of forces acting on a rigid body in a given direction is equal to the
product of the mass of the body and its acceleration in the same direction.
where M denotes the mass of the body and a(t) is the acceleration of the body
in the direction considered, v(t) is the linear velocity of the body and x(t) is
the displacement of the body.
Mechanical translational systems are modelled by three ideal elements:
mass, spring, and damper.
1. Mass: Mass is considered as a property of an element that stores the
kinetic energy of translation motion. If W denotes the weight of a body, the
mass M is given by
where g is the acceleration of free fall of the body due to
gravity. One end of mass is always connected to the ground.
2. Linear Spring: a spring is considered to be an element that stores potential energy.
All springs in real life are nonlinear to some extent.
However, if the deformation of the spring is small, its behavior can be approximated by a
linear relationship.
3. Friction: Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two physical elements,
frictional forces exist. They are nonlinear in nature. Three different types of friction are
commonly used in practical systems: viscous friction, static friction and coulomb friction.
(a) Coulomb friction force: This is the force of sliding friction between dry surfaces. Coulomb
friction force is substantially constant.
(b) Viscous friction force: This is the force of friction between moving surfaces separated by
viscous fluid or the force between a solid body and a fluid medium. Viscous friction force is
approximately linearly proportional to velocity over a certain limited velocity range.
(c) Stiction: This is the force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces.
The viscous friction predominates. The friction force acts in a direction opposite to that of
velocity. The element for viscous friction is often represented by a dash pot.
 Mechanical rotational systems

Mechanical rotational systems are those in which the motion is about a

fixed axis.
Newton’s law of motion for rotational systems states that the
algebraic sum of moments or torques about a fixed axis is equal to the
product of the inertia and the angular acceleration about the axis.
Mechanical rotational systems are modelled by three ideal elements:
inertia, torsional spring, and damper.
1. Inertia: Inertia, J, is considered to be the property of an element that stores
the kinetic energy of rotational motion. The inertia of a given element
depends on the geometric composition about the axis of rotation and its
density. One end of the inertia element is always connected to ground.
2. Torsional spring: As with the linear spring for translational motion, a
torsional spring constant K can be devised to represent the compliance of a
rod or a shaft when it is subjected to an applied Torque.
3. Friction: The three types of friction for rotational systems are (a) coulomb
friction, (b) viscous friction, and (c) stiction—same as for translational
systems. Out of these three, viscous friction is the dominant one. This
element is often represented by a dash pot.
Mechanical Network of Translational Systems
Consider the mechanical system shown in Figure 2.2 (a). It is simply a mass
M attached to a spring (stiffness K) and a dash pot (viscous friction
coefficient f) on which the force F acts. Displacement x is positive in the
direction shown. Let v be the velocity.

Then, by applying Newton’s law of motion (which states that

the algebraic sum of the forces acting on a rigid body in a given direction is
equal to the product of the mass of the body and its acceleration in the same
direction) to the free-body diagram or mechanical network, the force equation
can be written in terms of displacement x or velocity v as follows:
This is a linear, constant coefficient differential equation describing the
dynamics of the mechanical system shown in Figure 2.2(a).
 The mechanical network for the given translational system

Similar way of mechanical system, In Mechanical network one end of F and M is grounded.
The other end of F is connected to the other end of M because F is applied on M. one end of
K and f is grounded and the other ends are connected to the free end of M.
Mechanical network of Rotational Systems
Consider the mechanical rotational system shown in Figure 2.3(a) which
consists of a rotatable disc of moment of inertia J and a shaft of stiffness K.
The disc rotates in a viscous medium with viscous friction coefficient f.
Let T be the applied torque which tends to rotate the disc.
In the mechanical network, one end of T and J is grounded. The other
end of T is connected to the other end of J because T is applied on J.
one end of f and K is grounded and the other ends are connected to
the free end of J.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The resistor, inductor, and capacitor are the three basic elements of electrical circuits. These
circuits are analyzed by the application of Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws. Inductor and
capacitor are the energy storage elements and resistor is the energy dissipative element.
ANALOGOUS
SYSTEMS
Impulse response: Consider that a linear time-invariant system has the input
r(t) and the output c(t). The system can be characterized by its impulse
response g(t), which is defined as the output when the input is a unit impulse
function δ(t). Once the impulse response of a linear system is known, the
output of the system, c(t), with any input r(t) can be found by using the
transfer function.
TRANSFER FUNCTION: SINGLE-INPUT-SINGLE OUTPUT SYSTEMS
The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the
Laplace transform of the impulse response, with all the initial conditions set
to zero. Let G(s) denote the transfer function of a single-input-single-output
system, with input r(t) and output c(t) and impulse response g(t). Then the
transfer function G(s) is defined as

with all the initial conditions set to zero, and C(s) and R(s) are the
Laplace transforms of c(t) and r(t) respectively.
Let us consider that the input output relation of a linear time-invariant system
is described by the following nth order differential equation with constant real
coefficients.
The properties of the transfer function are as follows:
1. The transfer function is defined only for a linear time-invariant system. It
is not defined for nonlinear systems.
2. The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of
a system is defined as the Laplace transform of the impulse response.
Alternatively, the transfer function between a pair of input and output
variables of a system is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to
the Laplace transform of the input.
3. All initial conditions of the system are set to zero.
4. The transfer function is independent of the input of the system.
5. The transfer function of a continuous-data system is expressed only as a
function of the complex variable s. It is not a function of the real variable
time, or any other variable that is used as the independent variable.

For discrete-data systems modelled by difference equations, the transfer

function is a function of z when the z-transform is used.
 Proper Transfer Function
The transfer function is said to be strictly proper, if the order of the
denominator polynomial is greater than that of the numerator polynomial (i.e.
n > m). The transfer function is said to be proper, if the order of the
numerator polynomial is equal to that of the denominator polynomial (i.e. m
= n). The transfer function is said to be improper, if the order of the
numerator polynomial is greater than that of the denominator polynomial (i.e.
m > n).
Characteristic Equation
The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation
obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function to
zero. Thus, the characteristic equation of the system described above is

Equation (2.2) is called the characteristic equation because it characterizes the behavior of
the system. The stability of linear single-input-single-output systems is governed
completely by the roots of the characteristic equation.
 The transfer function obtained by replacing s with jω in the original
transfer function is called the sinusoidal transfer function.

PROCEDURE FOR DERIVING TRANSFER

FUNCTIONS
The following assumptions are made in deriving transfer functions of
physical systems.
1. It is assumed that there is no loading, i.e. no power is drawn at the output
of the system. If the system has more than one non-loading elements in
cascade, then the transfer function of each element can be determined
independently, and the overall transfer function of the physical system is
determined by multiplying the individual transfer functions. In case of
systems consisting of elements which load each other, the overall
transfer function should be derived by basic analysis without regard to
individual transfer functions.
2. The systems should be approximated by linear, lumped, constant
parameter models by making suitable assumptions.
Example 2.1 For the mass-spring dashpot system shown in Figure 2.7(a),
obtain the transfer function. Also obtain the analogous electrical network
based on (a) force-voltage analogy and (b) force-current analogy.

From the free body diagram

 and the analogous electrical network is as shown in Figure 2.8(a).
the analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy can be easily drawn like this:
the structure of the electrical network is exactly the same as the structure of the mechanical
network, i.e. series elements in the mechanical network remain as series elements in the
electrical network and shunt elements in the mechanical network remain as shunt elements in
the electrical network. Just replace the force F(t) by a current source i(t) (= F(t)), mass M by
capacitance C (= M), friction f by resistance R (= 1/f), spring K by inductance L (= 1/K),
displacement x by flux φ, and velocity v by voltage e. The node equations of the electrical
network will be analogous to the node equations of the mechanical network.
Once a mechanical network is available, the analogous electrical network
based on force-voltage analogy can be drawn easily .the series elements of
the mechanical network become analogous shunt elements and the shunt
elements of the mechanical network become analogous series elements.
Replace the force F(t) by a voltage source e(t) (= F(t)), mass M by
inductance L (= M), friction f by resistance R (= f), spring K by capacitance
C
(= 1/K), displacement x by charge q and velocity v by current i(t). The loop
equations will be analogous to the node equations of mechanical network.
the analogous electrical network based on torque current analogy can be easily drawn like this:
the structure of the electrical network is exactly the same as the structure of the mechanical
network, i.e. series elements in the mechanical network remain as series elements in the electrical
network and shunt elements in the mechanical network remain as shunt elements in the electrical
network. So the node equations of the electrical network will be analogous to the node equations
of mechanical network. Just replace the torque T(t) by current source i(t) (= T(t)), inertia J by
capacitance C (= J), friction f by resistance R (= 1/f), spring K by inductance L (= 1/K), angular
displacement θ by φ and angular velocity ω by voltage e.
the analogous electrical network based on torque-voltage analogy can be easily
drawn like this. In this, the series elements of the mechanical network become
analogous shunt elements and the shunt elements of the mechanical network
become analogous series elements. Replace torque T(t) by a voltage source e(t) (=
T(t)), inertia J by inductance L (= J), friction f by resistance R(= f), spring K
by capacitance C (= 1/K), angular displacement θ by charge q, and angular
velocity ω by i(t). So the loop equations of the electrical network will be
analogous to the node equations of the mechanical network.
No external force is applied. The displacements are due to initial conditions.
Problem Differential
Equations
Example 2.6 Consider the mechanical system shown in Figure 2.14(a).
Suppose that the system is set into motion by unit impulse force. Find the
resulting oscillation. Assume that the system is at rest initially.
Example2.9 Write the differential equations for the mechanical system
shown in Figure 2.19(a). Also draw the analogous electrical circuit based on
force-current analogy.
Example 2.10 Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in Figure 2.21. Also obtain the analogous electrical circuits based on (a) force-current
analogy and (b) force-voltage analogy. Also find the transfer function X1(s)/F(s).
Example 2.11 For the mechanical system shown in Figure 2.25, write the
differential equations describing its behavior. Write the analogous electrical
equations based on force-voltage analogy, and force-current analogy, and
draw the corresponding networks. Also draw the mechanical network and
obtain the transfer function Y1(s)/F(s).
Example 2.12 Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system shown in Figure 2.30(a).
Example 2.20 Write the torque equations of the rotational system shown in
Figure 2.46. Draw the analogous electrical networks based on (a) torque current
and (b) torque-voltage analogies.