Manufacturing Materials

IE251

Lecture 7: Metals -1
 Outline

 Metals, Classification of metals, metallic Alloys, and

classification of Alloys.
 Phase Diagram and case studies of some alloy system
phase diagrams, and detail study of steel and cast iron.
 Objectives

 To understand the characteristics of metals and their

alloys, and the phase diagram for the alloy system
 To gain knowledge in widely used materials such as steel
and cast iron.
Four Types of Engineering Materials

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
4. Composites
 Metals

1. Alloys and phase diagram

2. Ferrous Metals
3. Nonferrous Metals
4. Superalloys
 Why Metals Are Important

 High stiffness and strength ‑ can be alloyed for high rigidity,

strength, and hardness
 Toughness ‑ capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of
materials
 Good electrical conductivity ‑ Metals are conductors
 Good thermal conductivity ‑ conduct heat better than ceramics or
polymers
 Cost – the price is very competitive with other engineering materials
Metals and Alloys
 Classification of Metals and Alloys

 Ferrous ‑ those based on iron

 Steels
 Cast irons
 Nonferrous ‑ all other metals
 Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, zinc,
lead, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, gold, silver, platinum,
and others
 Superalloys
 Metals and Alloys
 An Alloy = A metal composed of two or more
elements
 At least one element is metallic

 Enhanced properties versus pure metals

 Strength
 Hardness
 Corrosion resistance

 Two main categories of Alloys

 Solid Solutions
 Intermediate Phases
Difference between solidification of an alloy and a
pure metal
Alloy Metal Pure Metal
 Solubility limit

For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature,

there is a maximum concentration of solute atoms that may
dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution; this is called a
solubility limit.

The addition of solute in excess of this solubility limit results in

the formation of another solid solution or compound that has a
distinctly different composition.

To illustrate this concept, consider the sugar–water system

 Solubility limit
Sugar–Water system

This solubility limit of sugar in water depends on the temperature

of the water and may be represented in graphical form on a plot
of temperature along the ordinate and composition (in weight
percent sugar) along the abscissa
 Solubility limit
Sugar–Water system

Since only two components are involved (sugar and water), the
sum of the concentrations at any composition will equal 100 wt
%.
The solubility limit is represented as the nearly vertical line in the
figure.
For compositions and temperatures to the left of the solubility
line, only the syrup liquid solution exists; to the right of the
line, syrup and solid sugar coexist.
For example, at 20oC the maximum solubility of sugar in water
is 65 wt%.
The solubility limit increases slightly with rising temperature.
 Solubility limit

Every pure material is considered to be a phase; so also is every solid, liquid,

and gaseous solution. For example, the sugar–water syrup solution just
discussed is one phase, and solid sugar is another.
Each phase has different physical properties (one is a liquid, the other is a
solid); furthermore, each is different chemically; one is virtually pure sugar,
the other is a solution of H2O and C12H22O11

If more than one phase is present in a given system, each will have its own
distinct properties, and a boundary separating the phases will exist across
which there will be a discontinuous and abrupt change in physical and/or
chemical characteristics.
Also, when a substance can exist in two or more polymorphic forms (e.g.,
having both FCC and BCC structures), each of these structures is a separate
phase because their respective physical characteristics differ.
Generally, the phases interact in such a way that the property combination of
the multiphase system is different from, and more attractive than, either of
the individual phases.
 Types of Alloys

Alloys

Intermediate
Solid Solutions Phases

Metallic Inter-metallic
Substitutional Interstitial Compounds Compound
 Solid Solutions

An alloy in which one element is dissolved in another

to form a single‑phase structure.

• Base element is metallic (Solvent)

• Dissolved element, metallic or non-metal

What is a phase (in a material structure)?

A phase = any homogeneous mass of material, such

as a metal, in which the grains all have the same
crystal lattice structure!
 Two Forms of Solid Solutions

Atomic radii
must be
similar
Lower
valence Must be small
metal is atoms:
usually Hydrogen,
solvent Carbon,
Nitrogen,
Boron

Figure 6.1
Substitutional solid solution - atoms Interstitial solid solution - atoms of
of solvent element are replaced in dissolving element fit into vacant spaces
its unit cell by dissolved element between base metal atoms in the lattice
structure
In both forms, the alloy structure is generally stronger and
harder than either of the component elements
 Two Forms of Solid Solutions

Substitutional solid solution Interstitial solid solution

Brass
Zinc dissolved in Copper = ?? Carbon dissolved in Iron = Steel
??
 Alloys

Intermediate
Solid Solutions Phases

Metallic Inter-metallic
Substitutional Interstitial Compounds Compound
 Intermediate Phases
 There are usually limits to the solubility of one element in
another

 When the amount of the dissolving element in the alloy

exceeds the solid solubility limit of the base metal, a second
phase forms in the alloy

 The term intermediate phase is used to describe it because its

chemical composition is intermediate between the two pure
elements

 Its crystalline structure is also different from those of the

pure metals
 Types of Intermediate Phases

1. Metallic compounds – consist of a metal and nonmetal, such as

Fe3C
2. Intermetallic compounds ‑ two metals that form a compound,
such as Mg2Pb, Ti3Al

 In some alloy compositions, the intermediate phase is mixed with the

primary solid solution to form a two‑phase structure
 Some two‑phase alloys are important because they can be heat treated
for much higher strength than solid solutions
 Phase Diagrams
A graphical picture showing the phases of a metal alloy system
as a function of composition and temperature

 Composition is plotted on the horizontal axis and

temperature on the vertical axis
 Any point in the diagram indicates the overall composition
and the phase or phases present at the given temperature
under equilibrium conditions
 A phase diagram for an alloy system consisting of two
elements at atmospheric pressure is called a binary phase
diagram (two phase diagram) e.g. Cu-Ni phase diagram
 Copper-Nickel (Cu- Ni) Phase Diagram

The overall Consider point A:

composition of Composition: 60% Ni, 40%
the alloy is Cu
given by its At 11000 C (or 2000o F) the
id alloy is still at solid stage.
position along + liqu
so lid
the horizontal Consider point B:
axis About 35% Ni and 65% Cu,
At 1250oC, it is a mixture of
liquid and solid.

Figure: Phase diagram for the copper‑nickel alloy system.

Copper-Nickel (Cu- Ni) Phase Diagram
 Chemical Compositions of Phases
 The overall composition of the alloy is given by its
position along the horizontal axis
 However, the compositions of liquid and solid phases are
not the same
 These compositions can be found by drawing a
horizontal line at the temperature of interest
 Where the line intersects the solidus and liquidus
indicates the compositions of solid and liquid phases,
respectively. We use the Inverse Lever Rule to find the
compositions:
 Example
Determine compositions of liquid and solid phases in the Cu-Ni
system at an aggregate composition of 50% nickel and a
temperature of 1260oC (2300oF)

 The proportion of solid phase

present is given by

S phase proportion = CL
CS  CL
= (50-36)/(14+12)=54%
*
 And the proportion of liquid
phase present is given by

L phase proportion = CS
= 100% - 54%= 46% (CS  CL )

100
*
 Tin-Lead Phase Diagram
Solid lead and
molten mixture

Molten Tin and lead Solid Tin and

Solid solution of Tin
molten mixture
in Lead

Solid solution of
Lead in Tin

Widely used
Pure tin melts at 232C (449F) Solid Tin and lead in soldering
Pure lead melts at 327C (621F) for making
electrical
connections

Figure: Phase diagram for the tin‑lead alloy system

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqV2xU1fee8
 Tin-Lead Phase Diagram
Solid lead and
molten mixture

Molten Tin and lead Solid Tin and

Solid solution of Tin
molten mixture
in Lead

Solid solution of
Lead in Tin
eutectic composition
61.9% Sn

Solid Tin and lead

One feature is the presence of two solid phases, alpha (α) and beta (β). The α phase is a solid
solution of tin in lead at the left side of the diagram, and the β phase is a solid solution of lead in
tin that occurs only at elevated temperatures around 200oC (375oF) at the right side of the
diagram.
 Tin-Lead Phase Diagram

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5dwpTqacqc
 Ferrous Metals

Based on iron, one of the oldest metals known to man

 Ferrous metals of engineering importance are alloys of iron

and carbon

 These alloys divide into two major groups:

Steel
Cast iron
 Together, they constitute approximately 85% of the metal
tonnage in the United States
Ferrous Metals
Steel and Cast Iron

What is the difference

between steel and cast iron?!
 Steel and Cast Iron Defined

Steel = an iron‑carbon alloy containing from 0.02% to

2.1% carbon.

Cast iron = an iron‑carbon alloy containing from 2.1%

to about 4% or 5% carbon.

Steels and cast irons can also contain other alloying

elements besides carbon.
 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram also known as
Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram

• Pure iron melts at 1539oC (2802oF).

During the rise in temperature from
ambient, it undergoes several solid
phase transformations, as indicated
in the diagram.
• Starting at room temperature the
phase is alpha (α), also called ferrite.
At 912oC (1674oF), ferrite transforms
to gamma ( γ ), called austenite.
This, in turn, transforms at 1394oC
(2541oF) to delta ( δ ), which
remains until melting occurs.
• The three phases are distinct; alpha
and delta have BCC lattice
structures, and between them,
gamma is FCC.

Phase diagram for iron‑carbon system, up to about

6% carbon.
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Phase diagram for iron‑carbon system, up to about 6% carbon.

 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
 Solubility limits of carbon in iron are low in the ferrite phase (BCC) only
about 0.022% at 723oC (1333oF).
 Austenite (FFC) can dissolve up to about 2.1% carbon at a temperature of
1130oC(2066oF). This difference in solubility between alpha and gamma leads
to opportunities for strengthening by heat treatment.
 Even without heat treatment, the strength of iron increases dramatically as
carbon content increases, and the metal is called steel.
 A eutectic composition at 4.3% carbon can be seen in the diagram. The lowest
temperature at which the alloy is still completely liquid is known as the
eutectic point. Also the point at which the liquid solution decomposes into
solid components. For example, at 4.3% carbon and 1147oC, the liquid phase
transforms into Austenite (γ) and Cementite (Fe3C).
 There is a similar feature in the solid region of the diagram at 0.77% carbon
and 723oC (1333oF). This is called the eutectoid composition where a solid
phase transforms into two other solids. For example, the Austenite (γ) phase
transforms into two solids namely ferrite (α) and cementite (Fe3C).
 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
 In addition to the phases mentioned, one other phase is prominent in the
iron–carbon alloy system. This is Fe3C, also known as cementite, an
intermediate phase.
 It is a metallic compound of iron and carbon that is hard and brittle. At
room temperature under equilibrium conditions, iron–carbon alloys form
a two-phase system at carbon levels even slightly above zero.
 The carbon content in steel ranges between these very low levels and
about 2.1% C. Above 2.1% C, up to about 4% or 5%, the alloy is defined
as cast iron.
 The Iron–Carbon System
 The figure shows iron–iron-carbide phase diagram

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Carbon System

Ferrite
 Alpha ferrite denoted α-ferrite or ferrite
 It is a solid solution of carbon in bcc iron
 Delta ferrite (δ-ferrite) is stable only at very high
temperatures and is of no practical significance in
engineering
 Ferrite is soft and ductile
 It is magnetic from room temperature to 768°C, Curie
temperature

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Carbon System

Austenite
 Within a certain temperature range, iron undergoes a
polymorphic transformation from a BCC to a FCC structure,
 Becomes gamma iron (γ-iron) or austenite
 Austenite is denser than ferrite and important in heat
treatment
 Austenite can absorb significantly higher amount of carbon
as compared to ferrite.
 Possesses good formability

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Carbon System

Austenite

Note the effect of carbon atom on the lattice

dimensions in martensite. The unit cell is no
longer cubic.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
 The Iron–Carbon System

Cementite
 Right boundary of the iron – iron-carbide phase diagram
represents cementite (Fe3C), also called carbide
 Cementite is very hard and brittle intermetallic compound
 Has a significant influence on the properties of steels

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram and the
Development of Microstructures in Steels

 The figure below shows the formation of the ferrite and

cementite at the eutectoid point in the iron–iron-carbide phase
diagram. Austenite is transformed into alpha ferrite (BCC)
and cementite

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram and the
Development of Microstructures in Steels

 Eutectoid reaction, is where at a certain temperature, a

single solid phase (austenite) is transformed into two other
solid phases
 Structure of eutectoid steel is called pearlite

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram and the
Development of Microstructures in Steels

 Microstructures developed depend on the carbon content,

the amount of plastic deformation (working), and the
method of heat treatment
 Reason for slow cooling is to maintain equilibrium; higher
rates of cooling are employed in heat treating
 Austenite is transformed into alpha ferrite (bcc) and
cementite

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

 The Iron–Iron-carbide Phase Diagram

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUMcbctDNtM
 Steel

An alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11% carbon by

weight.

 Often includes other alloying elements: nickel,

manganese, chromium, and molybdenum.

 Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories:

1. Plain carbon steels
2. Low alloy steels
3. Stainless steels
4. Tool steels
 Steel: Plain Carbon Steels

 Carbon is the principal alloying element, with only small

amounts of other elements (about 0.5% manganese is normal)

 Strength of plain carbon steels increases with carbon

content, but ductility is reduced

Carbon Strength Carbon Ductility

 High carbon steels can be heat treated to form martensite,

making the steel very hard and strong
Figure: Tensile strength and hardness as a function of carbon
content in plain carbon steel (hot rolled).
 AISI-SAE Designation Scheme

Specified by a 4‑digit number system: 10XX, where 10

indicates plain carbon steel, and XX indicates carbon % in
hundredths of percentage points

 For example, 1020 steel contains 0.20% C

 Developed by American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), so designation often expressed as AISI
1020 or SAE 1020
 Plain Carbon Steels

1. Low carbon steels - contain less than 0.20% C

 Applications: automobile sheet metal parts, plate steel
for fabrication, railroad rails
2. Medium carbon steels - range between 0.20% and
0.50% C
 Applications: machinery components and engine parts
such as crankshafts and connecting rods
3. High carbon steels - contain carbon in amounts
greater than 0.50%
 Applications: cutting tools and blades, wear-resistant
parts
 Steel: Low Alloy Steels

Iron‑carbon alloys that contain additional alloying

elements in amounts totaling less than  5% by
weight
 Mechanical properties superior to plain carbon
steels for given applications
 Higher strength, hardness, wear resistance,
toughness, and more desirable combinations of these
properties
Large diameter pipeline
 Heat treatment is often required to achieve
these improved properties
 AISI-SAE Designation Scheme

AISI‑SAE designation uses a 4‑digit number

system: YYXX, where YY indicates alloying
elements, and XX indicates carbon % in
hundredths of % points
 Examples:

13XX - Manganese steel

20XX - Nickel steel
31XX - Nickel‑chrome steel
40XX - Molybdenum steel
41XX - Chrome‑molybdenum steel
 Steel: High Alloy Steels [Stainless Steel (SS)]
Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion resistance
 Principal alloying element is Chromium, usually greater than
15%
 Cr forms a thin oxide film that protects surface from
corrosion

 Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS, but high C

content reduces corrosion protection since chromium carbide
forms to reduce available free Cr

Carbon Strength Carbon Corrosion protection

 Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in certain SS to

increase corrosion protection
 Properties of Stainless Steels

 In addition to corrosion resistance, stainless steels are

noted for their combination of strength and ductility
 While desirable in many applications, these properties
generally make stainless steel difficult to work in
manufacturing
 Significantly more expensive than plain C or low alloy
steels
 Steel: Tool Steels

A class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as

industrial cutting tools, dies, and molds.
 To perform in these applications, they must possess high
strength, hardness, wear resistance, and toughness under
impact.
 Tool steels are mostly heat treated.
 AISI Classification of Tools Steels

T, M High‑speed tool steels ‑ cutting tools in machining

H Hot‑working tool steels ‑ hot‑working dies for
forging, extrusion, and die‑casting
D Cold‑work tool steels ‑ cold working dies for
sheet metal press working, cold extrusion, and
forging
W Water‑hardening tool steels ‑ high carbon but little
else
S Shock‑resistant tool steels ‑ tools needing high
toughness, as in sheet metal punching and bending
P Mold steels ‑ molds for molding plastics and
rubber
AISI Classification of Tools Steels
 Cast Iron

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8SYhISGxN4
 Cast Irons

Iron alloys containing from 2.1% to about 4% carbon and

from 1% to 3% silicon
 This composition makes them highly suitable as casting
metals

 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all

other cast metal parts combined, excluding cast ingots in
steel-making that are subsequently rolled into bars, plates,
and similar stock
 Types of Cast Irons

 Gray cast iron

 Ductile iron
 White cast iron
 Malleable iron
 Cast Iron Chemistries

Figure: Carbon and silicon % for cast irons, compared to steels (most steels
have relatively low Si % ‑ cast steels have higher Si %).
 Types of Cast Irons

 Gray cast iron is the most important one.

 Gray cast iron accounts for the largest tonnage among the cast
irons. It has a composition in the range 2.5% to 4% carbon and
1% to 3% silicon.
 This chemistry results in the formation of graphite (carbon) flakes
distributed throughout the cast product upon solidification.
 The structure causes the surface of the metal to have a gray color
when fractured; hence the name gray cast iron.
 Ductility of gray cast iron is very low; it is a relatively brittle
material.
 Types of Cast Irons

 Gray cast iron

 The dispersion of graphite flakes accounts for two
attractive properties:
1. Good vibration damping, which is desirable in engines
and other machinery.
2. Internal lubricating qualities, which makes the cast
metal machinable.
 Products made from gray cast iron include automotive
engine blocks and heads, motor housings, and machine
tool bases.
 Types of Cast Irons
Ductile Cast Iron
 This is an iron with the composition of gray iron in which the molten
metal is chemically treated before solidification to cause the formation
of graphite spheroids rather than flakes.
 This results in a tougher and more ductile iron, hence its name.
 Applications include machinery components requiring high strength
and good wear.

Chemical
treatment

Ductile cast iron

 Types of Cast Irons
 White cast iron has less carbon and silicon than gray cast iron.
 It is formed by more rapid cooling of the molten metal after pouring,
thus causing the carbon to remain chemically combined with iron in
the form of cementite (Fe3C), rather than precipitating out of solution
in the form of flakes.
 When fractured, the surface has a white crystalline appearance that
gives the iron its name.
 Owing to the cementite, white cast iron is hard and brittle, and its
wear resistance is excellent. Strength is also good, with TS of 276
MPa being typical.
 These properties make white cast iron suitable for applications in
which wear resistance is required. E.g. railway brake shoes.
 Types of Cast Irons
 Malleable Iron: When castings of white cast iron are heat treated to
separate the carbon out of solution and form graphite aggregates, the
resulting metal is called malleable iron. The new microstructure can
possess substantial ductility (up to 20% elongation)—a significant
difference from the metal out of which it was transformed.
 Typical products made of malleable cast iron include pipe fittings and
flanges, certain machine components, and railroad equipment parts.

White Cast Iron Malleable Iron

 Prepare sections 4.1 to 4.6 of chapter 4 in textbook.