LOCOMOTION SYSTEM

Skeletal system Muscular system

All multicellular organisms
require supporting
structures such as skeletal
system and muscular
system. In this chapter,
both of the systems are
accepted as one system –
locomotion system- because
these systems provide
motion by working
cooperatively.
These systems are in close
relation with other
systems, especially; nervous
system and endocrine
system.
Frontal Dorsal
From unicellular organisms to human every
organism has different types of supporting
structures or systems depending on its complexity.

For example;
I. Unicellular organisms has cytoskeleton.
II. Lower plants such as annual plants use turgor
pressure to support their body.
III. Higher plants such as perennial trees has
collenchyma or sclerenchyma.
IV. Invertebrates such as worms hydrostatic
skeleton.
V. Invertebrates such as arthropods have exoskeleton.
VI. Vertebrates such as fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals (including human)
have endoskeleton.
 II

The cytoskeleton, a network of protein fibers, crisscrosses

the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, providing shape and
mechanical support.
Lower plants such as annual plants use turgor I
pressure to support their body.
 III

Collenchymatic cells Sclereids are sclerenchymatic cells.

Collenchymatic
and
Sclerenchymatic
Fibers are another type of
sclerenchymatic cells.
cells support perennial plants.
 IV

Like earthworms and other annelids, velvetworms have a

hydrostatic skeleton that supports their body and helps
them move.
 V

The outer surface of the body, called the exoskeleton, is

protected by a hard chitinous material.
The exoskeleton forms the complete outer covering V
of arthropods. It is composed of one or a mixture of
organic and inorganic substances. These substances are
secreted by specific sort of cells.
Exoskeleton is completely nonliving and there is no other
layer on the exoskeleton.

Horseshoe crabs
 In crustaceans and arthropods exoskeleton is made V
up of a polysaccharide called as chitin as well as proteins,
lipids and same salts. The outer covering is named as
cuticle. Since exoskeleton does not have an elastic
structure, arthropods may replace their exoskeleton with a
greater one. This process is named as ecidysis.

Ecidysis: A greengrocer cicada

requires 13 years underground to
mature. It then emerges from the
soil, climbs a
tree, and molts prior to reproducing.
Exoskeleton of snails and clams are rigid forms of V
exoskeleton. Their skeleton is mainly made up of organic
compounds and calcium salts such as calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). Instead of changing their skeleton these
organisms add new sections to their shell.
Sponges, sea stars, and all vertebrates posses an IV
endoskeleton.
Endoskeleton differentiates from mesoderm in
vertebrates.

This natural bath sponge is actually the skeleton of

a primitive marine animal called a sponge. The
The echinoderm endoskeleton. The endoskeleton provides skeleton of a sponge can be composed of either
support and protection. As in other echinoderms, the sea silica, calcium carbonate, spongin, a flexible,
urchin endoskeleton is composed of spicules and plates of protein-based material, or a combination of these
nonliving calcium salts embedded in tissues of the body wall. materials.
 IV

The type of the skeleton in mammals is endoskeleton.

The most primitive form of vertebrate skeleton is IV
seen in amphioxus (=lancelet). Skeleton of this
organism is a primitive notochord.
Generally in all vertebrates skeleton has a bony IV
structure. But in cartilage fish like shark and stingray
skeleton is a cartilage skeleton.
Actually, in vertebrates is in the form of cartilage in
the early embryonic stage, but later it is converted into
bony skeleton.
The functions of skeletal system are as below;
 It supports the body structure

 It provides movement together with the

muscles

 It gives the body its shape

 It protects the internal organs from

external effects

 It produces blood cells by the help of bone

marrow that is present in its structure.

 It stores minerals such as Ca, Mg, and P.

 Human
Skeletal System
 Bones may develop from both connective tissue and
cartilage tissue.
 Within the bone tissue ground substance and different
cells are present.

Bone tissue

Ground Substance
Ground substance is mainly solid and rigid. It contains collagen
fibers. It is secreted by the cells of the bone tissue. In the Cells
ground substance 45% minerals such as Ca, Mg and P and 25%
water H2O are present.

Osteo- Osteoblasts Osteocytes Osteoclasts

progenitor They are young bone cells They are active on the
Each osteocyte is located in a
that later develop into cavity known as lacunae. From surface of the bones and
their role is to dissolve and
cells
osteocytes. Their main each cell canaliculi
function is to secrete the (=cytoplasmic projections) absorb the damaged bone
They are the bone ground substance (=collagen extend to the neighboring
forming cells fibers and glycoproteins such osteocytes. Canaliculi are
as ossein). When ground functional in the release and
substance is secreted it uptake of Ca++ to / from the
does not contain any blood to keep the homeostatic
minerals but after the balance.
deposition of Ca++ the tissue
ossifies.
Osteoprogenitor cells Osteoclast

Osteoblasts Osteocytes
There are two structural types of bone
tissue
spongy bone tissue
compact bone tissue
 Spongy bone tissue
It is present inside the most bones such
as flat bones of the skull and the tips of
the long bones.
It contains many
cavities but it
lacks Haversian
channels.
In its cavities red
bone marrow is
present and
synthesizes blood
cells.
 Compact bone tissue 1/2
It is present at the outer surface of all
bones.
It also forms cylindrical lamellae
(=osteon) of long bones.
Each lamella is bordered by a layer of
osteocytes.
Many lamellae form many cylindrical
structures. And these cylinders stand one
by the other to form the compact bone
tissue.
 Compact bone tissue 2/2
Each cylinder has a Haversian channel at
the center.
Haversial channels are connected to each
other by Volkmann channels.
Blood vessels and nerves penetrate the
bones by branching into these channels.
By the help of these vessels blood
provides and removes materials to/from
the bone.
Micrograph of Haversion system
Types of Bones
There
are three
types of
bones in
human
skeleton
according
to their
shape;
a) Long bones
b) Short bones
c) Flat bones
 a) Long bones 1/2
They are found in the extremities
(=arms and legs).
Each tip of the bone is composed of a
wide expanded region named as the
head.
The long part between the heads is
named as the shaft.
Long bones are covered by a thin
membrane that is named as periosteum.
Periosteum functions in the increase of
the diameter of the bone.
 a) Long bones 2/2
Each head is covered by a compact bone
tissue.
At the center of each head spongy bone
tissue with its red bone marrow content
is present.
The shaft part is completely composed
of compact bone tissue. At the center
of the shaft a longitudinal cavity is
present.
In this cavity yellow bone marrow is
located.
Head Shaft Head
Compact bone tissue

Spongy bone tissue

and red bone
marrow
Yellow bone
marrow

Structure of a long bone

 b) Short bones
 They are found in
the vertebrae, hand
(wrist, joint and
fingers) and feet.
 Width, length and
height of these
bones are
approximately same.
 They are similar to
the flat bones in
structure.
 c) Flat bones
The sternum (=chest bone), rib cage,
hip bones, patella of the knee and the
bones of the skull are all flat bones.
The layers in its structure from
outside to inside are…
periosteum
compact bone
spongy bone
red bone marrow.
No canal and no yellow bone marrow
are present.
 Parts of the
human skeleton
 Human skeleton is composed of
207 bones.
 This number may change according to the
age of the individual.
 Also the ossicles in
the middle ear are
calculated out of
this number.
 In some anatomy
books the number is
given more.
 Human Skull
skeleton is
studied
under 3 main Trunk
parts;

1) Skull
2) Trunk
3) Extremities Extremities
 1) Skull
(totally 22 bones)
The skull is studied mainly in 2 groups of bones;
a) Cranial bones b) Facial bones.

a) Cranial bones (totally 8 bones):

 They are joined to each other with immovable
joints and enclose important nerve centers such
as cerebrum and cerebellum.
 During the first year of human development
some of these bones are soft and pliable, but
later ossifies.
 Cranial bones consists of 8 bones, they are…
Sphenoid (1) Parietal (2)
Ethmoid (1) Occipital (1)
Frontal (1) Temporal (2)
 1
2

2 1

1
 Ethmoid

Sphenoid

Totally 8 cranial bones

 b) Facial bones (totally 14 bones):
Facial bones are found in the eye sphere, nasal
cavity and the mouth.
Facial bones consists of 14 bones, they are…

Lacrimal (2) Maxilla (2)

Zygomatic (2) Palatin (2)
Nasal (2) Vomer (1)
Nasal concha (2) Mandible (1)
2

2
1
2

1
 2 1 1

Totally 14 facial bones

2 2

2 2
 2) Trunk
(totally 65 bones)
The trunk is made up of 5 groups of bones;
a) Vertebral column d) Pelvic girdle
b) Sternum e) Pectoral girdle
c) Ribs

a) Vertebral column (totally 33 bones):

 The first vertebrae of cervical vertebrae is
named as atlas and connects the vertebral
column to the skull.
 The second vertebrae of cervical vertebrae is
named as axis and provides the movement of
the head.
 In the vertebral foramen of each vertebra,
spinal cord extends from cerebellum to the
lower part of the vertebral column.
 Cervical (7)

Skull

Atlas
Thoracic (12)
Axis

Intervertebral
column

Lumbar (5)

Sacral (5)

Coccyx (4 fused)
Between each vertebrae a disk is present.
The disk protects the vertebra by absorbing
the shocks.
Vertebral column is 70-75 cm in length and has
a characteristic S shape in a lateral view.
Vertebral column is composed of 33 vertebrae.
Vertebral column has 5 different regions;
Cervical (7)
Thoracic (12)
Lumbar (5)
Sacral (5)
Caudal(=coccyx) (4)
 b) Sternum (chest bone) (totally 1 bone):
The sternum is the midline bony structure
located between the left and right ribs at the
anterior chest wall.

c) Ribs (totally 24 bones):

 12 pairs of ribs are present in the structure

of a ribcage.
 One end of each rib is connected to the
vertebral column and the other end to the
sternum, except 11th and 12th.
 11th and 12th ribs make connection with the
vertebral column but the other ends are
floating freely.
 d) Pectoral girdle (totally 4 bones):
 Each side of the pectoral girdle contains one
scapula and one clavicle that are joined to
sternum.
 e) Pelvic girdle (totally 3 bones):
In the pelvic girdle three bones are present
they are ilium, ischium and pubis. In both of the
girdles bones provide the easy movement of the
organism.
3) Extremities (=Appendages)
(totally 120 bones):
Extremities are classified as …
a) Upper extremities (2 arms and 2 hands)
b) Lower extremities (2 legs and 2 feet).
a) Upper extremities (totally 60 bones):
 Bones of upper extremities are studied in two
groups of bones;
 Upper extremities consist of 2 arms and 2
hands.
 Arms are connected to the pectoral girdle.
Arm bones (3 bones): Hand bones (27 bones):
Humerus (1) Carpals (8)
Radius (1) Metacarpals (5)
Ulna (1) Phalanges (14)
 b) Lower extremities (totally 60 bones):

 Bones of lower extremities are studied in two

groups of bones;
 Lower extremities consist of 2 legs and 2 feet.
 Arms are connected to the pelvic girdle.
Leg bones (3 bones): Foot bones (27 bones):
Femur (1) Tarsals (8)
Tibia (1) Metatarsals (5)
Fibula (1) Phalanges (14)
<>
 Calculation of bone number in human skeleton

1) Skull Total:
a) Facial 14
22
b) Cranial 8
2) Trunk Total:
a) Vertebral column 33
b) Sternum 1
c) Ribs 24 65
d) Pectoral girdle 4
e) Pelvic girdle 3
3) Extremities Total:
a) Upper extremities (2arms and 2 hands) 60
120
b) Upper extremities (2legs and 2 feet) 60
Total: 207
Joints
  Joints form the junctions of two
or more bones. There are 3
types of joints;

a) Immovable joints
b) Slightly movable
joints
c) Movable joints
 a) Immovable joints
 This sort of joint is seen in the
skull.
 All cranial and facial bones with the
exception of mandible are joined
with immovable joints.
 Since structure of each bone at
interconnection point is uneven and
rough like the teeth of a saw bones
are hold in immovable position.
 b) Slightly movable joints
 These joints provide the limited
movement of the bones as in the
vertebral column.
 Between the vertebrae of the vertical
column cartilage or connective tissue is
present (intervertebral column, disk).
 The degree of movement depends on the
elasticity of this interconnecting
material.
 The photo below shows how
intervertebral disk functions
 c) Movable joints
 These joints are present in the most active
parts of the skeleton such as arms and legs.

The joints are colored in the illustration.

The point of
articulation in each
bone (=bone head)
is covered by
articular cartilage
composed of hyaline
cartilage.
There is a capsule
made up of
connective tissue
surrounding the
joint.
Inside the capsule,
right beneath it,
synovial membrane
is present. This
membrane secretes
synovial fluid to
provide a friction
free surface for
the bones.
The joint itself is
hold together by
bone to bone
ligaments.
Samples of movable joint; hip joint and arm joint
Bone formation
and
its regulation
 In bone formation and its
regulation the following factors
are important;

a) Hormones
b) Minerals
c) Balanced diet
d) Genetic factors
 a) Hormones:
Bones absorb Ca , P and K from blood to increase
++

their rigidity. At the same time the level of these

minerals must be normal in the blood.
The absorption and the release of Ca++ are
provided by two hormones; parathormone and
calcitonin.
If the level of Ca++ decreases in the blood,
parathyroid gland secretes parathormone. This
results in the release of Ca++ into the blood from
the bones and the teeth. Finally, the Ca++ level
increases.
If the level of Ca++ increases in the blood, thyroid
secretes calcitonin. Secretion of calcitonin results
in the absorption of Ca++ from the blood by the
bones. Finally, the Ca++ level decreases.
 Thyroid Calcitonin secretion into
Affects
blood

Increase in Ca++ level Absorption of Ca++ by the bones

from blood (Decrease in blood Ca++
level)

Normal Ca++ level

Decrease in Ca++ level Release of Ca++ from the bones

into blood (Increase in blood Ca+
+
level)

Affects Parathormone secretion

Parathyroid into blood

Thyroid and parathyroid functions in the control of blood

Ca++ level
Another hormone that is indirectly
important in bone formation and
development is the growth hormone
(=somatotrophin, STH). STH is important
in the development of the skeleton
because of its effects on the liver
activity and protein metabolism.
If STH is secreted more than expected
gigantism occurs, reversely, if it is
secreted less than expected than
dwarfism occurs.
Gigantism Dwarfism
 b) Minerals:

In bone formation

vitamin A, C and D are important.
Vitamin D provides the accumulation of Ca++ and
P in the bones. The precursors of vitamin D are
present in the skin and they are converted into
vitamin D under the effect of sunlight.
In the deficiency of vitamin D the bones and
the teeth formation of bone and teeth takes a
considerable time and fail to harden completely.
As a result, symptoms of disease ricketts
appear. Rickets is an illness in which the person
has fragile bones.
In a deficiency of vitamin A the growth rate of
bones decreases. Because normal functioning of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts is dependent upon
vitamin A.
In a deficiency of vitamin C weak and fragile
bones are formed. (Scurvy)
 c) Balanced diet
A balanced diet is also important in bone
growth. The main substance in bone tissue is
ossein. Ossein has a proteinic structure.
A protein rich
diet including
meat, egg, milk
etc. is effective
on bone growth.
Balanced diet is
also important for
the uptake of
vitamins and
minerals.
 d) Genetic factors
Genetic factors are also effective on
bone growth.
Some people have
strong bones and
the others have
weak. This is
related with the
previous factors
but also related
with the genetic
structure of the
individual.
Other factors that effect the bone growth are given on
the illustration below;
 How do the bones grow? (1/2)
 Bones are formed from
cartilage tissue.
 The cartilage skeleton of the
fetus starts to grow and
ossify after birth.
 There are different
ossification centers in a long
bone and firstly the cartilage
starts to ossify at these
centers.
 The bone growth continues
until the age of 17-20.
 How do the bones grow? (1/2)
The increase in the diameter of a bone is
provided by periosteum.

Osteocytes
form new
layers
under the
periosteum
to increase
the bone’s
diameter.
 Human
Muscular System
 Muscular
system is the
second most
specialized
system after
nervous
system in the
body.
 The most
features of
the muscles
are their
ability of
contraction.
Because of
this the
muscle cells
are elongated.
 The functions of muscular system are as below;

 They support the body and give shape to

it. For example; abdominal muscles of the
vertebrates support the visceral
(=abdominal) organs.

 The movement of a joint is again provided

by muscles.

 Muscles are present in the structure of

many organs of circulatory, digestive and
excretory system.
 The structure and
organization of muscles
Muscle tissue is classified according
to its morphological and physical
structure as well as its location in
the body as …

a) Smooth muscle
b) Striated muscle
c) Cardiac muscle
 a) Smooth muscle 1/2
Smooth muscle cells differ from skeletal
muscle cells in that each cell is long and
sharp ended with a single central
nucleus.
Sarcolemma

Sarcoplasma

Nucleus

Myofibrils

Longitudinal section Transverse section

 a) Smooth muscle 2/2
A smooth muscle cell contains a
membrane named as sarcolemma and the
cytoplasm is named as sarcoplasma. In
sarcoplasma myofibrils are present.
Sarcolemma

Sarcoplasma

Nucleus

Myofibrils

Longitudinal section Transverse section

 a) Smooth muscle
Smooth muscles are present in the body where
slow, prolonged, involuntary contraction is needed.
For example; in the stomach and in the
intestines.

Smooth
muscle activity
is generally
regulated by
ANS
(=Autonomic
Nervous
System)
 Smooth Muscle
Human smooth muscle is composed of slender, spindle-shaped cells, each with
a single nucleus. Smooth muscle cells contract in rhythmic waves to propel food
through the digestive tract and provide tension in the urinary bladder, blood
vessels, uterus, and other internal organs.
 b) Striated muscle 1/2
 Striated muscle cells are long, cylindrical and
multinucleated.
 Striated muscle cells are named as muscle
fibers due to their elongated structure.
 The organelles are embedded in sarcoplasma
each nucleus is present beneath the
sarcolemma. Sarcolemma
Sarcoplasma
Myofibrils
Nucleus

Longitudinal section Transverse section

 b) Striated muscle 2/2
 Each muscle cell (=muscle fiber) contains several
myofibrils, which are composed of regularly arranged
myofilaments of two types, thick and thin.
 Each thick myofilament contains several hundred
molecules of the protein myosin. Thin filaments contain
two strands of the protein actin. Actin and myosin
appear in dark and light bands giving a striated
appearance to the muscle.
Sarcolemma
Sarcoplasma
Myofibrils
Nucleus

Longitudinal section Transverse section

 Muscle cell
(muscle fiber)
Striated muscles are present in the body
where rapid, short, voluntary contraction is
needed.
For example; biceps and triceps.
Striated muscle activity is controlled by
CNS (=Central nervous system, the brain
part).
Striated muscle is red in human and may be
white in some other organisms such as
frogs. Red striated muscle contains a great
amount of blood capillaries and pigment
myoglobin.
 In a muscle fiber the light bands are named
as I bands where dark bands are named as
A bands.
 In the middle of each I band a dark line is
present. This dark line is named as Z line.
 The region between two Z lines is named as
sarcomer (=contraction unit).
 Each myofibril is composed of narrower
fibers. Short and thick fibers are named as
myosin where long and thin fibers are named
as actin.
 The A band is composed of myosin fibers
where I band is composed of actin fibers.
 The muscles contract by actin and myosin
fibers sliding over each other.
 SARCOMERE

Z line Z line

H band

I band A band I band

(actin) (myosin) (actin)
 SARCOMERE

Z line H band Z line

I band I band
A band
 The tips of skeletal muscles are coated by
strong connective tissue that is named as
tendon. Tendons are unique to skeletal muscles
and connect them to the bones.

 Tendons are
more
resistant to
physical
effects but
they don’t
have the
ability for
contraction.
 Skeletal muscles provide movement by articulating with a
joint. Generally, skeletal muscles work in couples. Every
movement is provided by antagonistic muscles that act in
opposite direction to each other.
 The contraction of
one antagonistic
muscle results in
relaxation of the
other.
 For example; in an
arm biceps
contract and
triceps relax, the
arm bends.
Reversely, biceps
relax and triceps
contract, the arm
becomes straight.
 On the other hand, the muscles that work
cooperatively in the same direction to provide
movement are known as synergic muscles.
Ex: Tongue muscles.
 c) Cardiac muscle
 A cardiac muscle cell contains a single central nucleus
and myofibrils.
 It contains more mitochondria and fewer myofibrils than
a skeletal muscle cell.
 Cardiac muscle cells contain branch-like projections.
These projections are not present in skeletal muscle
cells.
 The cardiac muscle activity is controlled by ANS
(=Autonomic Nervous System).
Intercalated
disc

Nucleus

Structure of a cardiac muscle

Intercalated discs
Muscular contraction
Since striated muscles contract more
rapid than smooth muscles; rapid
movement in vertebrates and arthropods
is the result of striated muscle activity.
For example; human eye muscles contract
in 1/100 seconds.
The muscles are stimulated by impulses
from the brain and spinal chord.
The motor neuron brings impulses to the
muscle cells. The point of attachment of
a muscle and a motor neuron is named as
motoneuron.
In a striated muscle tissue each cell makes
attachments with the motor neuron at more
than one point.
The point where a motor neuron ends at
muscle is named as motor end plate.
Impulse is sent by the brain through the
motor neuron and reaches to the motor end
plate.
It produces a potential difference in this
region and stimulates the muscle fiber.
As a result, the muscle fiber contracts.
One motor neuron may affect more than 650
muscle fibers in a leg. On the other hand, it
may affect only 3-6 muscle fibers in an eye.
 In a smooth muscle tissue only some of the cells make
attachments with the motor neuron. The impulses are
transmitted to the other cells from the cells that make
attachment to the motor neuron. Maybe the reason for
slow contraction of smooth muscles is this.
 In paralysis, contraction ability of a muscle is
lost. The reason for paralysis is a defect in
motor neuron not in the muscle.
 Mechanism
of
contraction
 A synapse is constructed between the axon of
a motor neuron and the muscles.
 Axoplasma of axon is rich in synaptic vesicles.
Those vesicles carry acetylcholine.
 As the impulse reaches the motor end plate,
acetylcholine is released to the synaptic region
(=region between axolemma and sarcolemma).
 Acetylcholine stimulates the release of Ca++
from E.R of the muscle cells between actin and
myosin fibers.
 Ca++ stimulates the contraction.
NEURON

Axolemma

Synaptic vesicles

Sarcolemma

Motor end plate

Synaptic cleft

MUSCLE
Contraction of a muscle
 Muscular contraction occurs in 3 phases;
I. Latent phase Latent phase: It is the
(a-b) interval between the
II. Contraction phase (b-c) stimulation of muscle and
initiation of contraction.
III.Relaxation phase (c-d)
It lasts approximately
0,01 seconds.
a b c d Contraction phase: It is
the interval between the
initiation of contraction
and initiation of relaxation.
It lasts approximately
0,04 seconds.
Relaxation phase: It is the
interval between the
initiation of relaxation and
restoration of original
position.
 A muscle will remain in a contracted state if it is
stimulated 40 times in a single minute. In such cases the
muscle looses its elasticity and becomes rigid. This
situation is named as tetanus.
 The graph below explains the tetanus;

I II III IV

Time
(milliseconds)
In graph I, 1 stimulus is given and a normal contraction occurs and the muscle rests in
a proper period of time.
In graph II, 3 stimuli are given and the muscle contracted 3 times but after each
contraction it can't find time to relax normally.
In graph III, the muscle is really tired because the muscle is stimulated many times
and contracted without finding time to rest. The muscle is in half tetanus in this
position.
In graph IV, the muscle is stimulated about 40 times in a minute and the muscle
becomes rigid. The muscle is full tetanus.
Cramps are good examples of tetanus.
They are painful and dangerous for the
individual. It may cause death during
swimming.
 No contraction or movement is seen in a muscle
if it is excited by only a weak impulse. For a
simple contraction the stimulus must be at a
proper level. This level is named as threshold
level.
 Impulses greater than the threshold level
create contraction. All the impulses that pass
the threshold level create the same contraction.
There is no difference in contraction features.
 The response of muscles to stimuli at a certain
threshold level is known as the non-or-all rule.
 No
contraction

Responses of
the muscles
(contraction)

10 Intensity of
15 stimulus (mV)

20
25
Treshold level
 Responses of
the muscles
(contraction)

Weak Impulse Strong Impulse

Energy supply
to
the muscles
 Energy is supplied to the muscles from 3
different sources;
 The first source is the ready ATP
stocks in the muscle.
 After these stocks are consumed from
creatine phosphate ATP is produced.
This is a rapid way of ATP production.
 The 3 way of ATP production is the
rd

production of ATP from organic

molecules (like proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates) by anaerobic or aerobic
respiration.
2
Creatine
phosphate

1
ATP
Glucose

Glycogen
3
 During contraction…
Glycogen, O2, creatine phosphate and ATP
amount decreases.
Lactic acid, CO2, creatine, inorganic
phosphate and ADP amount increases.
 The main energy source for 1
contraction is ATP molecule.
 In the presence of Ca++ ions, ATP is hydrolyzed
into ADP + P and the obtained energy is used
for contraction.
 ATP stocks are rapidly consumed during
muscular activity. These stocks must be
restored by the usage of other molecules.

ATP ADP + P + Energy

 The ATP stocks are restored firstly from 2
creatine phosphate. 1 P molecule of
creatine phosphate is transferred to ADP to form
ATP molecule.
 Creatine phosphate supplies 20 times greater energy
than normal.
 At the moment of contraction creatine phosphate
looses its phosphate.
 As the muscle rests it regains its phosphate from
newly synthesized ATP molecules. This is why the
reaction above is shown in two directions.

Creatine Phosphate + ADP Creatine + ATP

 3
 Another way of ATP production is by the
conversion of glycogen into glucose and glucose
into ATP.
 ATP from glucose can be produced both under
aerobic (=presence of O2) and anaerobic
(=absence of O2) conditions.
 In the presence of oxygen, glucose is
hydrolyzed into 6CO2 and 6H2O and 38 ATP is
produced in mitochondria.
 This energy is used directly or converted into
creatine phosphate and stored in this form.

Glucose + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP

In the lack of oxygen, glucose is first converted
into pyruvate by glycolysis and later into lactic
acid (=Lactic acid fermentation).
Fermentation results in the production of 2ATP
and lactic acid.
Fermentation is used during sudden, hard
exercise or during a long term exercise. The
reason for this is that ATP that is needed for
the muscle cannot be supplied in a short period
of time by aerobic pathway. As a solution to
restore the missing ATP stocks at least a little,
muscle decides to use the anaerobic pathway.

C6H12O6 + 2 ATP 2 C3H6O3 + 4 ATP + heat

(Glucose) (Lactic acid)
 As a result of fermentation lactic acid is
accumulated in the muscle and it gives tiredness
to it.
 During resting period, the
muscle finds enough
oxygen, lactic acid is
transported to the liver
and converted back again
into pyruvate. Pyruvate
later enters aerobic
pathway for energy
production or is used for
some other purposes.
 If the muscle cannot rest
that cramps take place.
 2ADP 2ATP
Fermentation
(O2 is not present)

Energy Lactic acid

Muscle Enzymes
Glucose
glycogen Energy

6CO2 + 6H2O

Aerobic
38ADP 38ATP respiration
(O2 is present)
The differences between
Smooth muscles
and
Skeletal muscles
 Smooth Muscles Striated Muscles
1) Function involuntarily 1) Function voluntarily

2) Uninucleated cells are 2) Multinucleated cells are

present present

3) The cell borders can be 3) The cell borders cannot be

seen seen

4) Contract slowly, becomes 4) Contract rapidly, becomes

tired in a long period tired in a short period

5) Participate in the 5) Participate in the structure

structure of inner organs of locomotion system

6) No striated structure 6) Striated structure