Biology notes®

G. Pema
Objectives
i. Explain why cartilages heal much slower than bones once damaged.
ii. Differentiate between type of cells found in cartilage and bones based on functions.
iii. Draw labelled diagram of an osteon/Haversian system
 Cartilage is avascular, flexible and semi-rigid supporting tissue. It
can withstand compression forces, and yet it can bend.
 It is important in forming a template for the growth and
development of long bones. And cartilage persists in regions such

Cartilage and as the ends of bones (articular cartilage), the walls of airways
(nose, trachea, larynx and bronchi).
Bone: basic  The GAG is chondroitin sulphate, which is rubbery, and provides
structure cartilage with resilience,
 The fibres are either collagen, or a mixture of collagen and elastin
fibres which provide cartilage with tensile strength, and elasticity
respectively.
Importance of • The extracellular matrix soaks up water, like a sponge, (osmotic effect)
due to the properties of the GAG: aggrecan, producing the high water

Extracellular content (75%).

• The collagen fibres form a network which has a very high tensile
matrix strength, and which entraps the aggrecan molecules.
• When you stand up or walk, the weight of your body is supported by the
cartilagenous ends of the long bones. In this state your weight
compresses the cartilage, literally squeezing the water out, until the force
produced by the osmotic swelling is equal to the compressive force
generated by your weight.
• Aggrecan is only found in cartilage. The aggregates contain up to 100
molecules of chondroitin sulphate (shown in purple) are bound to one
molecule of hyaluronic acid
 1. to form the supporting framework of some organs, such as the
walls of airways (nose, trachea, larynx and bronchi), where it
prevents airway collapse.

What is 2. to form the articulating surfaces of bones, and

3. to form the template for the growth and development of long
cartilage for? bones, and most of the rest of the fetal skeleton (gradually
replaced by bone). In children, the cartilaginous plates at the
ends of long bones can be seen on X-rays. These templates
disappear when adults reach their full height.
  The extracellular matrix of cartilage is secreted by chondroblasts,
(chondro = cartilage), which are found in the outer covering layer of
cartilage. As the chondroblasts secrete matrix and fibres, they become
trapped inside it, and mature into cells called chondrocytes.
 In growing cartilage, the chondrocytes can divide, and the daughter
Constituents of cells remain close together in groups, forming a 'nest' of 2-4 cells. The
cartilage: matrix enclosed compartments that they sit in are called lacunae.
(lacunae = little lakes/small pits). The active chondrocytes are large
Cells secretory cells with basophilic cytoplasm because they have lots of
rough endoplasmic reticulum. Older chondrocytes contain fat droplets.
  The surface of most cartilage is covered by a layer of dense
irregular connective tissue called the perichondrium (peri =
around). The outer layer of the perichondrium contains collagen
producing fibroblasts, and the inner layer contains chondroblasts.
 Unlike other connective tissues cartilage is avascular (like

Growth and epithelia). Cartilage is nourished by long range diffusion from

nearby capillaries in the perichondrium. Therefore, cartilage can
nourishment of never become very thick, as diffusion would not be sufficient to
supply the cartilage with nutrients and oxygen. (This is in contrast to
cartilage: bone, because bone has a very good blood supply).
 Cartilage can grow in two ways: Interstitial growth - chondrocytes
grow and divide and lay down more matrix inside the existing
cartilage. This mainly happens during childhood and
adolescence. Appositional growth - new surface layers of matrix
are added to the pre-existing matrix by new chondroblasts from the
perichondrium.
 Hyaline cartilage is the most widespread cartilage type and, in
adults, it forms the articular surfaces of long bones, the rib tips,
the rings of the trachea, and parts of the skull. This type of
cartilage is predominately collagen (yet with few collagen fibers),
and its name refers to its glassy appearance. The collagen
fibresare hard to see in sections. It has a perichondrium, and it is
the weakest of the three types of cartilage.

1. Hyaline
cartilage
 This is the strongest kind of cartilage, because it has alternating
layers of hyaline cartilage matrix and thick layers of dense
collagen fibres oriented in the direction of functional stresses.
It owes its flexibility and toughness to the fibrous tissue, and its
elasticity to the cartilaginous tissue.
Fibrocartilage is found in the pubic symphysis, the annulus

2. fibrosus of intervertebral discs, menisci, and the temporal

mandibular joint.
Fibrocartilage
 Elastic or yellow cartilage contains elastic fiber networks and
collagen fibers. The principal protein is elastin.
Elastic cartilage is histologically similar to hyaline cartilage but
contains many yellow elastic fibers lying in a solid matrix. These
fibers form bundles that appear dark under a microscope. They
3. Elastic give elastic cartilage great flexibility so it can withstand repeated

cartilage bending.
 Once damaged, cartilage has limited repair capabilities because
chondrocytes are bound in lacunae and cannot migrate to
damaged areas. Also, because cartilage does not have a blood
Repair supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow.
 1. Support - bones make up a structural framework for the body,
and provide attachment sites for muscles.
2. Protection - protection of internal organs - i.e. brain, heart
Bone - and lungs,
What is bone 3. Assisting movement.
for? 4. Mineral homeostasis - the bone is a store for calcium and
phosphorus
5. Blood cell production - takes place in the bone marrow.
  Hardest tissue of the body.
 Like cartilage, and other types of connective tissue, bone is
What is bone made up of Cells and Extracellular matrix:

made up of?  Cells - which in bone are called osteoblasts and osteocytes,
(osteo - bone). There are also two other cell
types: osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts.
  Osteoprogenitor cells are the 'stem' cells of bone, and are the
source of new osteoblasts.
 Osteoblasts, lining the surface of bone, secrete collagen and the
organic matrix of bone (osteoid), which becomes calcified soon
after it has been deposited. As they become trapped in the organic
matrix, they become osteocytes.
Types of cell  Osteocytes maintain bone tissue. Fine processes from these cells
found in bone. ramify through bone, and form gap junctions with other osteocytes.
  Osteocytes sit in the calcified matrix, in small spaces called
lacunae (lacuna - singular). Long processes from the osteocyte
lie in small channels called canaliculi (small canals). These are
channels for the transport for nutrients and waste. The
osteocyte processes contact other ostocytes, forming gap
junctions, so that they can communicate with each other.
Osteocytes
Osteon (Haversia
n system) - the
basic unit
of compact bone.
Some, mostly older, compact bone is remodelled to form
these Haversian systems (or osteons). The osteocytes sit in
their lacunae in concentric rings around a central Haversian
canal (which runs longitudinally). The osteocytes are arranged in
concentric rings of bone matrix called lamellae (little plates), and
their processes run in interconnecting canaliculi. The
central Haversian canal, and horizontal canals
(perforating/Volkmann’s) canals contain blood vessels and nerves
from the periosteum.
 Osteoclasts are large multinucleated cells, with a 'ruffled border'
that resorb bone matrix, as shown in the diagram above. They are
important for remodelling, growth and repair of bone. (clast -
greek 'to break’).
Osteoclasts are not derived from osteoprogenitor cells. They are
derived from blood monocytes/macrophages which are derived
Cells that are from haemopeoitic cells in the bone marrow.

involved in
remodelling bone:
Osteoclasts
 1. Mechanical stresses on the skeleton cause release of calcium,
that stimulate bone-remodelling.
Bone re-
modelling is 2. Hormones also control bone re-modelling. Parathyroid
necessary for hormone stimulates bone resorption. and calcitonin inhibits
resorption.
growth: -
 1. Compact bone - which is found in the shafts of long bones (in
the diaphyses). This makes up 80% of all bone.

Types of bone: 2. Spongy (cancellous) bone - which is found at the ends of

long bones (in the epiphysis). This makes up 20% of all bone.
This type of bone contains red bone marrow and a network of
bony trabeculae.
  A 'periosteum' is found on the
outside of bone. This is a dense
fibrous layer, where muscles insert. It
contains bone forming cells. It is not
found in the regions of bone covered
by articular cartilage.
 The endosteum is the name given to
Types of bone the tissue that lines the inner surfaces
of bones.
 Unlike cartilage, bone has a very good blood supply. Bone is
riddled with blood capillaries. The central cavity contains blood
vessels and is a storage for bone marrow. All of the osteocytes in
bone are within 0.2mm of a capillary. The tissue fluid from the

Growth and capillary reaches the osteocytes though canaliculi.

nourishment of There are two ways in which bone can grow:

1. Endochondral - formation of bone onto a temporary cartilage
bone. model or scaffold.
2. Intramembranous - formation of bone directly onto fibrous
connective tissue. There is no intermediate cartilage stage. This
type of ossification occurs in a few specialised places such as
the flat bones of skull (i.e. parietal bone), mandible, maxilla
and clavicles. Mesenchyme cells differentiate
into osteoprogenitor cells, then into osteoblasts, which secrete
the bone matrix. Once the osteoblasts are embedded in the
bone matrix, they are known as osteocytes.
 The movements your muscles make are coordinated and controlled
by the brain and nervous system.

When you decide to move, the motor cortex sends an electrical signal
through the spinal cord and peripheral nerves to the muscles, causing
them to contract. The motor cortex on the right side of the brain
How Do controls the muscles on the left side of the body and vice versa.

Muscles Muscles move body parts by contracting and then relaxing. Muscles
can pull bones, but they can't push them back to the original position.
Work? So they work in pairs of flexors and extensors. The flexor contracts
to bend a limb at a joint. Then, when the movement is completed, the
flexor relaxes and the extensor contracts to extend or straighten the
limb at the same joint. For example, the biceps muscle, in the front of
the upper arm, is a flexor, and the triceps, at the back of the upper
arm, is an extensor. When you bend at your elbow, the biceps
contracts. Then the biceps relaxes and the triceps contracts to
straighten the elbow.
Questions

i. Why does cartilage heal significantly slower compared to bones

following damage? Provide a detailed explanation of the physiological
mechanisms underlying this discrepancy.

ii. Compare and contrast the roles and characteristics of cells present in
cartilage versus bones, elucidating their functional distinctions.

iii. Create a labeled diagram illustrating the structure of an osteon

(Haversian system), and provide annotations to highlight its key
components and functions.
i. Cartilage heals slower than bones due to its avascular nature, limiting nutrient and immune cell supply.
Chondrocytes, the main cartilage cells, have lower metabolic activity compared to bone cells, hindering
repair.
ii. Cartilage primarily contains chondrocytes responsible for ECM maintenance, growth, and repair. Bones
consist of osteoblasts for formation, osteocytes for structure maintenance, and osteoclasts for resorption.
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