Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Slide 2- 2
Data Models
Data Model:
A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database, the operations for
manipulating these structures, and certain constraints that the database should
obey.
Data Model Structure and Constraints:
Constructs are used to define the database structure
Constructs typically include elements (and their data types) as well as groups of
elements (e.g entity, record, table), and relationships among such groups
Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these constraints must be
enforced at all times
Slide 2- 3
Data Models (continued)
Data Model Operations:
These operations are used for specifying database retrievals and
updates by referring to the constructs of the data model.
Operations on the data model may include basic model operations
(e.g. generic insert, delete, update) and user-defined operations
(e.g. compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)
Slide 2- 4
Categories of Data Models
Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data.
(Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the computer.
These are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner through DBMS design and
administration manuals
Implementation (representational) data models:
Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many commercial
DBMS implementations (e.g. relational data models used in many commercial
systems).
Slide 2- 5
Schemas versus Instances
Database Schema:
The description of a database.
Includes descriptions of the database structure, data types, and the
constraints on the database.
Schema Diagram:
An illustrative display of (some aspects of) a database schema.
Schema Construct:
A component of the schema or an object within the schema, e.g.,
STUDENT, COURSE.
Slide 2- 6
Schemas versus Instances
Database State:
The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment in
time. This includes the collection of all the data in the database.
Also called database instance (or occurrence or snapshot).
The term instance is also applied to individual database components,
e.g. record instance, table instance, entity instance
Slide 2- 7
Database Schema
vs. Database State
Database State:
Refers to the content of a database at a moment in time.
Initial Database State:
Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into the system.
Valid State:
A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the database.
Slide 2- 8
Database Schema
vs. Database State
Distinction
The database schema changes very infrequently.
The database state changes every time the database is updated.
Slide 2- 9
Example of a Database Schema
Slide 2- 10
Example of a database state
Slide 2- 11
Three-Schema Architecture
Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
Program-data independence.
Support of multiple views of the data.
Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products, but has been
useful in explaining database system organization
Slide 2- 12
Three-Schema Architecture
Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage structures and
access paths (e.g indexes).
Typically uses a physical data model.
Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the structure and
constraints for the whole database for a community of users.
Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
External schemas at the external level to describe the various user views.
Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual level.
Slide 2- 13
The three-schema architecture
Slide 2- 14
Three-Schema Architecture
Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform requests
and data.
Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by the DBMS
to the internal schema for execution.
Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted to match
the user’s external view (e.g. formatting the results of an SQL query
for display in a Web page)
Slide 2- 15
Data Independence
Logical Data Independence:
The capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to
change the external schemas and their associated application
programs.
Physical Data Independence:
The capacity to change the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.
For example, the internal schema may be changed when certain file
structures are reorganized or new indexes are created to improve
database performance
Slide 2- 16
Data Independence (continued)
When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the mappings
between this schema and higher-level schemas need to be
changed in a DBMS that fully supports data independence.
The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged.
Hence, the application programs need not be changed since they
refer to the external schemas.
Slide 2- 17
DBMS Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These include the
relational language SQL
May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded in a
programming language
Low Level or Procedural Languages:
These must be embedded in a programming language
Slide 2- 18
DBMS Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL):
Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual
schema of a database.
In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external
schemas (views).
In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and
view definition language (VDL) are used to define internal and
external schemas.
SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the DBA and
database designers
Slide 2- 19
DBMS Languages
Data Manipulation Language (DML):
Used to specify database retrievals and updates
DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-
purpose programming language (host language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
A library of functions can also be provided to access the DBMS from a
programming language
Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly
(called a query language).
Slide 2- 20
Types of DML
High Level or Non-procedural Language:
For example, the SQL relational language
Are “set”-oriented and specify what data to
retrieve rather than how to retrieve it.
Also called declarative languages.
Low Level or Procedural Language:
Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
Constructs such as looping are needed to
retrieve multiple records, along with
positioning pointers.
Slide 2- 21
DBMS Interfaces
Stand-alone query language interfaces
Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS interactive SQL
interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in ORACLE)
Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in programming
languages
User-friendly interfaces
Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.
Slide 2- 22
DBMS Programming Language Interfaces
Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a programming
languages:
Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C, C++, etc.), SQLJ
(for Java)
Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC for other
programming languages
Database Programming Language Approach: e.g. ORACLE has
PL/SQL, a programming language based on SQL; language
incorporates SQL and its data types as integral components
Slide 2- 23
User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces
Slide 2- 24
Other DBMS Interfaces
Speech as Input and Output
Web Browser as an interface
Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using function keys.
Interfaces for the DBA:
Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
Setting system parameters
Changing schemas or access path
Slide 2- 25
Database System Utilities
To perform certain functions such as:
Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data conversion
tools.
Backing up the database periodically on tape.
Reorganizing database file structures.
Report generation utilities.
Performance monitoring utilities.
Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data compression,
etc.
Slide 2- 26
Typical DBMS Component Modules
Slide 2- 27
Centralized and
Client-Server DBMS Architectures
Centralized DBMS:
Combines everything into single system including- DBMS software,
hardware, application programs, and user interface processing
software.
User can still connect through a remote terminal – however, all
processing is done at centralized site.
Slide 2- 28
A Physical Centralized Architecture
Slide 2- 29
Basic 2-tier Client-Server Architectures
Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
Print server
File server
DBMS server
Web server
Email server
Clients can access the specialized servers as needed
Slide 2- 30
Logical two-tier client server architecture
Slide 2- 31
Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
A client program may connect to several DBMSs, sometimes called
the data sources.
In general, data sources can be files or other non-DBMS software
that manages data.
Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in some object
DBMSs, more functionality is transferred to clients including data
dictionary functions, optimization and recovery across multiple
servers, etc.
Slide 2- 32
Three Tier Client-Server Architecture
Common for Web applications
Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web Server:
Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic part of the application
used to access the corresponding data from the database server
Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data between the database
server and the client.
Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
Database server only accessible via middle tier
Clients cannot directly access database server
Slide 2- 33
Three-tier client-server architecture
Slide 2- 34
Classification of DBMSs
Based on the data model used
Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
Other classifications
Single-user (typically used with personal computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
Centralized (uses a single computer with one database)
vs. distributed (uses multiple computers,
multiple databases)
Slide 2- 35
Variations of Distributed DBMSs (DDBMSs)
Homogeneous DDBMS
Heterogeneous DDBMS
Federated or Multidatabase Systems
Distributed Database Systems have now come to be known as
client-server based database systems because:
Slide 2- 36
Cost considerations for DBMSs
Cost Range: from free open-source systems to configurations costing millions
of dollars
Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL, PostgreSQL, others
Commercial DBMS offer additional specialized modules, e.g. time-series
module, spatial data module, document module, XML module
These offer additional specialized functionality when purchased separately
Sometimes called cartridges or blades
Different licensing options: site license, maximum number of concurrent users
(seat license), single user, etc.
Slide 2- 37
History of Data Models
Network Model
Hierarchical Model
Relational Model
Object-oriented Data Models
Object-Relational Models
Slide 2- 38
Summary
Data Models and Their Categories
History of Data Models
Schemas, Instances, and States
Three-Schema Architecture
Data Independence
DBMS Languages and Interfaces
Database System Utilities and Tools
Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
Classification of DBMSs
Slide 2- 39