HISTORICAL

GEOLOGY

PREPARED BY: GROUP 2

Historical geology is the study of changes in Earth and
its life forms over time. It includes sub-disciplines such
as paleontology, paleoclimatology, and paleoseismology.
In addition to providing a scientific basis for
understanding the evolution of Earth over time,
historical geology provides important information about
ancient climate changes, volcanic eruptions, and
earthquakes that can be used to anticipate the sizes and
frequencies of future events.
RELATIVE AGE
DATING
• “Relative age” means the age of one object
compared to the age of another, not the exact
age ofan object. This method can only be used
when the rock layers are in their original
sequence.

• All six of the original stratigraphic principles

may be applied to determine the age of a
rock.This process is called age dating.
Correlation of strata by rock unit type
(lithology) or fossil type(biology) using species,
composition, or texture leads scientists to
extrapolate relationships overlarge areas of
land. Because rock layers can be “matched up,”
we can guess that they wereformed during the
same period, so they usually are the same age.
• Using the principles of original
horizontality and superposition, we can
conclude that oldestrock is always on the
bottom because is was deposited 1st.

• Deciphering the sequence of a rock

outcrop is sometimes complicated by a
features within therock record called
unconformities, which are specific
contacts between rock layers. There
arethree types of unconformities that
help us determine relative ages of rock
layers:
1. ANGULAR: Horizontal beds are uplifted and tilted
oreroded followed by new deposition of
horizontalbeds. The figure to the right is an
angularunconconformity.
2. DISCONFORMITY: Episodes of erosion or non-
deposition between layers.
3. NONCONFORMITY: Sediment is deposited on top
oferoded volcanic or metamorphic rock (indicatesvery
long passage of time)Wikipedia (public domain)Tilted
bed of sedimentary rockHorizontal bed of
sedimentary rock.
 ABSOLUTE
AGE DATING
• Absolute ages, or geochronometric ages, of rock can be assigned to
the geologic time scale on thebasis of properties of atoms that make
up the minerals of a rock. Unlike relative dating, whichrelies on
sequencing of rock layers (i.e. younger vs. older), absolute dating can
produce an actualage in years.
• The number of neutrons in a nucleus of an atom determines the
isotope of the element, just likethe number of protons determines the
identity of an element.
• Some isotopes are unstable and break down into other isotopes
through a process calledradioactive decay. Radioactive decay is
characterized by beta decay, where a neutron changes intoa proton
by giving off an electron, and alpha decay, when isotopes give off 2
protons and 2neutrons in the form of an alpha particle and changes
into a new product. The original isotope iscalled the parent and the
THEORIES
AND LAWS
Nicholas Steno, a Danish physician (1638-1687), described how the
position of a rock layer could be used to show the relative age of
the layer. He devised the three main principles that underlie the
interpretation of geologic time:
 The principle of superposition: The layer on the bottom was
deposited first and so is the oldest
 The principle of horizontality: All rock layers were originally
deposited horizontally.
 The principle of original lateral continuity: Originally
deposited layers of rock extend laterally in all directions until
either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer.

These important principles have formed the framework for the

geologic area of stratigraphy, which is the study of layered rock
(strata).
Decades later, other European scientists rediscovered „Steno’s
Laws‟ and began applying them. Abraham Gottlob Werner became
famous for his proposal that all rocks came from the ocean
environment. He and his followers were called “Neptunists.” An
opposing view (by Voisins) argued that all rocks of the earth came
from volcanic environments. These scientist were called
“plutonists.”

James Hutton, a Scottish physician and geologist (1726-1797),

thought the surface of the earth was an ever-changing
environment and “the past history of our globe must be explained
by what can be seen to be happening now.” This theory was called
“uniformitarianism,” which was later catch-phrased as “the
present is the key to the past.”
William Smith was a surveyor who was in charge of
mapping a large part of England. He was the first to
understand that certain rock units could be identified by
the particular assemblages of fossils they contained.
Using this information, he was able to correlate strata with
the same fossils for many miles, giving rise to the
principle of biologic succession.

 The principle of biologic succession: Each age in the

earth’s history is unique such that fossil remains will
be unique. This permits vertical and horizontal
correlation of the rock layers based on fossil species.
During the early 1800‟s, English Geologist, Charles Lyell
published a book called “Principles of Geology,” which
became a very important volume in Great Britain. It
included all of Hutton’s ideas, and presented his own
contemporary ideas such as:

 The principle of cross-cutting relationships: A rock

feature that cuts across another feature must be
younger than the rock that it cuts.
 Inclusion principle: Small fragments of one type of rock
but embedded in a second type of rock must have
formed first and were included when the second rock
was forming.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an unpaid naturalist who signed
up for a 5-yrexpedition around the world aboard the H.M.S. Beagle.
On this trip, he realized two major points. In spite of all species
reproducing, no one species overwhelmed the Earth, concluding
that not all individuals produced in a generation survive. He also
found that individuals of the same kind differ from one another and
concluded that those with the most favorable variations would
have the best chance of surviving to create the next generation.

The theory of natural selection was credited to Darwin (along with

Alfred Russel Wallace)and he went on to write the famous “Origin
of Species.” Darwin’s two goals in that work were:
1. To convince the world that evolution had occur and
organisms had changed over geologic time
2. The mechanism for this evolution was natural selection.
GEOLOGIC
TIME SCALE
• The geologic time scale divides up the history of
the earth based on life-forms thathave existed
during specific times since the creation of the
planet. These divisions arecalled
geochronologic units (geo: rock, chronology:
time).
• Most of these life-forms are found as fossils,
which are the remains or traces of anorganism
from the geologic past that has been preserved
in sediment or rock. Withoutfossils, scientists
may not have concluded that the earth has a
history that long precedesmankind.
• The Geologic Time Scale is divided by the
following divisions:

 Eons: Longest subdivision; based on the

abundance of certain fossils
 Eras: Next to longest subdivision; marked by
major changes in the fossil record
 Periods: Based on types of life existing at the
time
 Epochs: Shortest subdivision; marked by
differences in life forms and can vary from
continent to continent.
THANK
YOU!