General Psychology Slides
General Psychology Slides
General Psychology Slides
A. Psychoanalytic Theory
B. Trait Theory
C. Humanistic Theory
Chapter Seven: Psychological Disorders
and Treatment Techniques
o Nature of Psychological Disorders
o Causes of Psychological Disorders
A. Biological Perspective
B. Psychological Perspective
o Types of Psychological Disorders
o Treatment Techniques
Chapter Eight: Introduction to Life Skills
C. Counselling Psychology
deals with providing counselling service to people
who are troubled by a problem in their life.
assists people on issues of personal adjustment,
vocational and career planning, family life and
may work in schools, hospitals, clinics or offices
D. Personality Psychology
Studies the ways in which people develop a
characteristic that makes them unique
studies individual differences in personality
and their effects on behaviour.
E. Industrial( Organizational) Psychology
Studies human behaviour in the workplace
and how behaviour affects production
F. Social Psychology
It studies the role of social forces in
governing individual behaviour.
Examines the ways in which the pattern
of a person’s feeling, thinking and acting
is affected by others
G. Cross Cultural Psychology
Studies the ways in which context and culture
affects behavior, thought and emotion. It is
interested in determining whether or not
psychological processes are universal or
culture specific
The study of variability and invariance under
different cultural conditions
EX: Submissiveness and Aggressiveness
H. Forensic Psychology
Is a branch of psychology that applies principle
in the legal system. It is concerned with the
study of such issues as
o Is someone emotionally and mentally capable
to stand trial?
o How should a minor’s testimony be handled in
court?
I. Health Psychology
Isthe study of psychological factors that cause
physical disease. It is concerned with exploring
the ways in which behavior affects health.
J. Clinical Psychology
is a field that applies psychological principles
to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
psychological disorders.
1.5. Research Methods in Psychology
The research method that psychologists
use to study human behaviour can be
classified in to several categories based
on the nature and purpose of the research.
The major classifications include:-
Descriptive, Correlational and
Experimental
1.4.1. Descriptive Methods
Involves the systematic recording of an
observation of an event
A. Naturalistic Observation
It is a systematic process of recording the
behavioural patterns of people, objects and
occurrences as they are witnessed in the
naturalistic observation.
Observer effect and observer bias are major
limitations of this method
B. The Survey Method
Surveys require asking people who are called
respondents, for information, using either verbal
or written questions. Interviews or questionnaires
are utilized to collect data on the telephone, face
to face and through other communication media.
Is useful to collect data from a large group of
people
requires selecting a representative sample
C. Case Study
Case study is a prominent research method in
psychology that intensively investigates one or a
few situations in detail over a long period of time.
Examples
studying the effect of isolation on language
development
Generalization is limited
4.
1.4.2. Correlational Research
Involvesstudying the relationship between
two variables without manipulating any
conditions
Cause and effect relationship is not determined
since variables are not manipulated
Ex: Interest and Academic achievement
Smoking and Lung cancer
1.4.3. Experimental Method
is used when a researcher wants to determine
cause and effect relationships between events
or variables
Variables
Variables in the experimental method are
attributes or characteristics of a situation,
person or a phenomenon which may differ or
fluctuate across situations, persons or
phenomena
1. Independent Variable
Is a variable that produces effects on the other variable
2. Dependent variable
Is a variable that is affected by the independent
variable
Groups in the Experimental Group
1. The experimental Group
is the group to which the experimental treatment or
independent variable is given
2. The control ( comparison ) Group
The group which is formed for comparison purpose
and receive no treatment
Chapter 2:
Sensation and Perception
2.1. Sensation
Definition
Is the process of detecting and encoding stimulus
energy in the world.(santrock,2000)
Is the stimulus detection process by which our
sense organs respond to and translate
environmental stimuli in to nerve impulses that
are sent to the brain(Passer and Smith,2004)
Sensory Receptors
Receptor cells (accessory structures) in each
sense organ sense and convert this physical
energy in to electrical energy to the brain.
Transduction
It is a process of converting incoming energy in to
neural activity. Just as a radio receives energy and
changes it in to sounds, the ears receives sound
energy and convert it in to neural activity that people
recognize as voices, music and other auditory
experiences.
Concepts ( laws) in Sensation
A. Sensory Threshold
The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be
detected 50 percent of the time.
The level of sensitivity below which detection of a
Detection of a stimulus depends not only on the
intensity of a stimulus but also such
psychological factors like response bias.
Response bias is the readiness of a person to
detect and report the presence of a particular
stimulus.
Ex: You are more likely to detect a sound in a
dangerous neighborhood walking at night than a
neighborhood which you think is safe
B. Sensory Adaptation ( Habituation)
A process through which responsiveness to an
unchanging stimulus decreases overtime.
A gradual decrease in the sensitivity of the sense
organs to a constant stimulation.
2.2. Perception
Is the process through which sensations are
interpreted using knowledge and understanding of
the world so that they become meaningful
experiences.
Is the process of making meaning out of sensation.
The moment we sense, we automatically perceive
Basic Features of Perception
1. Perception is the creation of experience.
Sensory systems provide raw materials from
the environment and we form experiences out
of it.
2. Perception is selective
Perception usually occurs in selective
attention. Our surrounding holds a lot of
information that seek our attention.
Unless we are able to filter out these
information and focus on those which are
important to us, perception does not occur
External Factors that Affect Attention
1. Intensity( size)
Intensity or magnitude refers to the degree or the
force with which a stimulus is presented.
Stimuli that occur in high intensity capture our
attention.
2. Novelty
A novel stimulus (a stimulus that is different or
unusual) attracts people attention than an ordinary
stimulus. If you are walking on a street, you would
be more fascinated by a new model car ( a hammer,
for example) passing by than a Volkswagen.
3. Movement
Stimuli that make movement grab our
attention much more than a stable,
stationary and non moving stimuli
4. Repetition
Repetition of a stimulus involves the
frequency of a stimulus. Whether or not we
are attracted to a stimulus is also determined
by the number of times the stimulus occurs
in our perceptual field
5. Contrast (colour)
Stimuli that are different in colour attract
our attention.
When a stimulus deviates in its
appearance from other surrounding
stimuli, it captures our attention.
Internal( Psychological ) Factors that affect Attention
1. Set or Expectancy
refers to mental readiness to receive certain
kinds of sensory input
EX: A husband expecting an important phone
call is more likely to hear phone calls than a wife
who is concerned about her baby crying.
2. Motives or Needs
People are more likely to be attracted to
environmental experiences ( events) in which
they are interested
3. Perception has organization and
structure
Everything we perceive has its own
structure and form. To make sense out of
what we perceive, we must know where
one thing begins and another ends
This process of dividing up the world
occurs effortlessly (naturally) and makes
our perception more meaningful ( Form
Perception)
Principles (laws) of perceptual
organization
The brain uses structrues in order to give
pattern, shape and form to our visual
perception.
It is based on these principles that
perceptual organization becomes
possible.
1. The figure ground Principle
This is a principle by which we organize
the perceptual field in to stimuli that stand
out (the figure) and those that are left over (
the ground).
This principle states that certain aspects of
our visual world become figure and others
ground
o The figure
Has its own shape
Takes up a space
Stands out as compared with the ground
o The ground
Has no shape and does not take up space
Refers to the surrounding space
This Photo by Unknown Author is
licensed under CC BY-SA
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY
2. The principle of Closure
This is a principle that states the brain tends to
fill in gaps in order to perceive complete forms.
People need to decipher less than perfect images
to make perceptions. To help us do so, the brain
tends to finish what is unfinished, complete what
is incomplete.
3 . The principle of Proximity
The principle of proximity is another principle
of giving form to visual perception.
This principle states that things that are near
each other tend to be grouped together. The
closer objects or events are to one another, the
more likely they are to be perceived as
belonging together.
4. The principle of Similarity
The principle of similarity states that things
that are alike in some way (for example, in
colour, shape or size) tend to be perceived as
belonging together.
4. Perception is Constant under Changing
Sensory Information
perception does not change when sensory
information about stimuli changes.
Our perceptual hypothesis remains the same when
information we receive about stimuli through the
visual sense organ change in colour, size or shape.
Categories of Perceptual Constancy
1. Size Constancy
refers to the perception that the size of objects
remains constant even though visual information
change with variations in distance.
2. Shape Constancy
states that we continue to perceive objects as having a
constant shape even though the shape of the retinal
image changes when our point of view changes.
Viewing angle or position superficially changes the
shape of an object
3. Colour (Brightness) Constancy
This principle states that the colour or brightness of an
object remains the same even though the amount of
light reflected on the objects change.
Sometimes objects may take different colour or
brightness because of variations in light reflected on
them.
4. Location Constancy
Location constancy states that the location or
position of stationary objects is always the same
even when our eyes tell us it is moving.
We perceive stationary objects as remaining in
the same place even though the retinal image
moves about as we move our eyes, heads, and
bodies.
Chapter 3 : Learning
Learning
3.1. Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behaviour as a result of previous practice and
experience
3.1.1. Features( Attributes) of Learning
Involves a change in behaviour
Is a relatively permanent
Changes due to maturation, illness or use of drugs
are not considered learning
Cannot be observed directly
Is based on practice
3.1.2.Principles of Learning
Learning occurs effectively under certain
conditions:-
o People learn best when they are physically,
mentally and emotionally ready to learn
o Learning occurs best when there is meaningful
practice and exercise
o Learning is strengthened when it is associated
with a pleasant feeling
o Things learned first create a strong impression
in the mind that is difficult to erase.
o Things most recently learned are best
remembered
o Individuals must have some abilities and skills
to learn
3.2. Factors that affect learning
Motivation
Maturation
Health condition
Psychological wellbeing of the learner
Good working conditions( comfortable
surroundings, distracting sounds,)
Background experiences
Massed/ distributed practice
3.3. Theories of Learning
3.3.1. Behavioral Theories of Learning
o Focuses on the stimulus response
associations
A. Classical conditioning ( Ivan Pavlov)
Classical conditioning is a process of
learning in which a neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with a natural stimulus
until it alone can produce a similar response.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Basic Terms
Neutral Stimulus
Itrefers to a stimulus which has no capacity to
produce a certain response initially but which
can produce the same natural reflex through
association with another natural stimulus
Natural( Unconditioned) Stimulus
This is a stimulus which automatically produces
a response without learning.
Conditioned Stimulus
The originally neutral stimulus which has
now acquired the power to evoke the
salivation response.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Extinction
A gradual disappearance of the conditioned
response
when a conditioned stimulus is presented
alone without an unconditioned stimulus, the
conditioned response will eventually cease.
2. Spontaneous Recovery
is the reappearance of the conditioned
response after a rest period or period of
lessened response.
3. Stimulus generalization
occurs when a previously unassociated or new
stimulus that has similar characteristics to the
previously associated stimulus elicits a
response that is the same or similar to the
previously associated response.
4. Stimulus Discrimination
is the ability to differentiate between a
conditioned stimulus and other stimuli
that have not been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
B. Operant ( Instrumental) Conditioning
( B.F. Skinner)
Isa process of learning in which the
probability of a behaviour is strengthened or
decreased based the kind of consequences that
occurs after the behaviour.
Principles of Operant conditioning
Reinforcement (Reinforcer)
Isa consequence or stimulus which usually
increases the probability of a behaviour.
Types of Reinforcer
A. Positive reinforcement
refers to a pleasant stimulus that increases the
likelihood of a behavior.
is further divided in to two types
Primary Positive reinforcer
refers to a stimulus which is vital for biological
survival. Examples: food, water, sleep, air etc.
Secondary Positive reinforcer
refers to a stimulus which is pleasant but not
essential for survival. Example : a university degree
B. Negative Reinforcement
Is a painful or aversive stimulus which
increases a behaviour when it is avoided.
A response or behaviour is strengthened
by stopping, removing, or avoiding a
negative or aversive stimulus.
Punishment ( Punisher)
isthe process by which a stimulus or event
weakens or reduces the probability of the
response that it follows.
It involves the presentation of aversive
stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one in
order to decrease the probability that an
operant behaviour will occur again.
Types of Punisher
1. Positive punishment
sometimes known as presentation or
application punishment involves the
presentation of unpleasant stimulus after a bad
behaviour
2. Negative Punishment
A negative punishment or sometimes known as
removal or withdrawal punishment involves the
removal or withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus
after a bad behaviour
Likereinforcers, punishment can also be
primary or secondary.
1. Primary Punishers
Are stimuli or conditions which are naturally or
inherently unpleasant like pain, extreme cold,
or heat
2. Secondary Punishes
Are stimuli or conditions which happen to be
unpleasant as a result of learning like demerits,
demotion, criticism, etc.
Factors in Punishment
The presence and absence of certain factors
affect the effectiveness of punishment. These
factors include:
A. Immediacy
Refers to the time interval between the behavior
and the punishment. The sooner the punishment
is administered the better.
B. Consistency
The consequence of a behavior must be
predictable on the part of the individual
C. Intensity or Balance
This refers to the strength of the punishment in
light of the misbehavior. The punishment
generally is assumed to be proportional with
the misbehavior
D. Love oriented Punishment
Punishment must focus on the behavior not on
the person
Shaping
The process of teaching a complex behavior by
rewarding closer and closer approximations of
the desired behavior.
In operant conditioning, behaviors are
rewarded when they occur.
But when behaviors are less likely to occur in
the first place we start by reinforcing any
behavior that is similar with the behavior you
want them to learn.
Ex: Organization of most text books
Schedules of Reinforcement
Involves the program or arrangement of
providing a positive reinforcement.
Basically involves two categories
A. Continuous reinforcement schedule
is the provision of reinforcement on
continuous bases
B. Non continuous( partial, intermittent)
schedule
is the provision of reinforcement to some of
the behaviours selectively
Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules
1. Fixed Interval schedule
is an intermittent schedule of reinforcement in
which a reinforcer is delivered for a response
after constant and fixed period of time.
EX: Salary
2. Variable Interval Schedule
is an intermittent schedule in which a
reinforcer is delivered for a response after a
variable period of time
3. Fixed Ratio Schedule
is an intermittent schedule in which reinforcement
occurs only after a fixed number of responses.
In order to receive a reward, it is necessary for the
organism to produce a certain fixed amount of
behaviour
A salesperson who must sell a specific number of
items before getting a commission and a factory
worker who must produce a specific number of
products before earning a given wage are both on
fixed ratio schedules.
4. Variable Ratio Schedule
is an intermittent schedule in which
reinforcement occurs after a variable number
of responses.
C. Social (observational ) learning
(ALBERT BANDURA)
isa process of learning in which an individual
learns new responses by observing the
behaviour of another rather than through direct
experience.
Learning can occur not only by doing and
association but also by observing or watching
what others do
Principles (concepts) in social learning
Model
refers
to a person who demonstrates to the learner
how a behaviour is performed.
Vicarious reinforcement( conditioning)
is an indirect reinforcement that the learner
observes the model receiving and which
encourages the learner to imitate the behaviour of
the model in order to receive a similar
reinforcement on future occasions.
Steps (elements) of social learning
1. Attention
Attention involves focusing on the behaviour
of the model.
2. Retention
Retention involves the recall of whatever is
observed. Attention without retention is
meaningless.
3. Duplication
This step involves performing the behaviour
like the model. Motivation
4. Motivation or expectation of reinforcement.
The learner keeps on imitating the behaviour of
the model only when he is motivated or
expects to receive reinforcement sometime in
the future.
Chapter 4: Memory and Forgetting
Information Processing Model
(Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968)
Interference
is the process through which either the storage or
retrieval of information is impaired by the
presence of other information
Types of Interference
1. Proactive interference
occurs when previously stored material
interferes with the ability to remember
similar, more recently learned material
2. Retroactive interference
occurs when recently stored materials
interferes with the ability to remember
similar and previously stored material.
Containsa large amount of information
which can be classified in to three
categories ( Subsystems)
Types of Memory in the LTM
1. Environmental Frustration
By making it difficult or impossible for a person to attain
a goal, environmental obstacles can frustrate the
satisfaction of motives.
An obstacle may be something physical, such as a locked
door or lack of money. Or it may be people like your
parents, teachers or police officers who prevent you from
achieving your goals
2. Personal Frustration
Unattainable goals can be important sources of
frustration.
These are largely learned goals that cannot be
achieved because they are beyond a person’s
abilities
3. Conflict Produced Frustration
This occurs when the expression of one motive
interferes with the expression of other motives.
When people are caught between a need to
express different conflicting motives, they
experience frustration
Conflict
refers to negative emotional state
(depression, anger, anxiety, etc) that
develop when a person is unable to make
a choice between two or more
alternatives.
Types of Motivational Conflict
1. Approach –Approach Conflict
is a conflict between two positive goals—
goals that are equally attractive at the same
time.
An individual may be torn between the idea of
going to a political rally or a movie which he
likes to do equally.
2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
This kind of conflict arises when a person
must select one of two undesirable
alternatives.
In this type of motivational conflict, people
are required to choose between two negative
goals which they both dislike.
Such conflicts are capsuled in the saying ‘’
caught between the devil and the deep blue
sea ‘’
3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict
This is a type of conflict in which a person is both
attracted and repelled by the same goal object.
Because of the positive valence of the goal, the
person approaches it, but as it is approached, the
negative valence becomes stronger.
In this type of conflict, a single decision involves
a positive and negative aspect.
The closer you are to something appealing, the
stronger your desire to approach it, the closer you
are to something unpleasant, the stronger your
desire to flee.
5.2.Emotions
Refer simply to feelings
A state of arousal involving biological
changes (brain activation), expressive
behaviour and mental experience.
Basic Emotions
Defining characteristics (features) of
Emotion
1. Emotion has three levels or components.
These aspects of emotion are the biological,
behavioural and cognitive.
A. The biological Level ( Component)
refers to the bodily and physical changes
that accompany certain emotions
B. The Behavioral Level ( Component)
emotion refers to all the things we do or the
activities we perform under the influence of
a certain emotion.
The mechanisms of expressing emotion like
facial expressions, gestures, eye contact,
vocal qualities, etc are behavioural
components of emotions.
C. Cognitive Level ( Component)
it involves interpreting the subjective
feeling by giving it a label
2. Emotional experience elicits an action
tendency; a motivation to behave in certain
ways.
An individual who is under a certain emotion
is more likely to take action.
3. Emotion is usually transitory. It tends to
have a relatively clear beginning and end and a
relatively short duration.
4. Emotions differ in their magnitude and
pleasantness. Different emotions can be felt in
different magnitudes from time to time.
Similarly, the same person may feel the same
emotion in different degrees of strength in
different situations.
5. Emotional experience is elicited partly by the
cognitive evaluation of a situation and how that
relates to our goals.
The same event may elicit different emotions
in different people depending on their
interpretation of the event.
6. Emotions and their expressions facilitate
communication between and among people.
Psychotherapy
Involves Providing psychological treatment to
individuals with some kind of psychological
problems .
Goal of Psychotherapy
to help the client reduce negative symptoms,
gain insight into why these symptoms occurred
work through those issues,
and reduce the emergence of the symptoms in the
future.
Issues to be considered in Psychotherapy
o Empathy
Involves being able to understand his or her
client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
o Being Neutral
The therapist must be non judgmental in his
approach.
If the therapist is judgmental, the client does not
feel safe talking about similar issues again.
Treatment Modalities
A therapist and a client
Therapy is most often thought of as a one-on-one
relationship between a client or patient and a
therapist.
Group Therapy
individuals suffering from similar illnesses or
having similar issues meet together with one or
two therapists.
Is helpful in making clients develop the feeling to
belong, understood, and know that there is hope
Family/ Couple therapy
Inthis type of treatment, the issues to be worked
on center around the relationship.
There is often an educational component such as
communication training, and couples and families
are encouraged to work together as a team rather
than against each other.
The therapist's job is to facilitate healthy
interaction, encourage the couple or family to
gain insight into their own behaviors, and to
teach the members to listen to and respect each
other.
CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION TO
LIFE SKILLS
Life Skills
8.1. Definition
abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that
enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life
refer to those skills needed by an individual to
operate effectively in society.
Involve those personal and social skills that help
a person to function competently and confidently
with oneself and others.
Types of life skills include
1.Livelihood or vocational skills
2. Practical health related skills
3. Physical skills
4. Skills related to behavior and
interaction (psychosocial skills)
8.2. Components of Life Skills
1. Critical thinking
2. Self- confidence
3. Self- esteem
4. Decision making
5. Interpersonal relationship
6. Reflective communication
7. Peer Resistance
8. Knowing rights and duties
9. Problem solving
8.3. Goals of life skills