GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

MODULE 6
 After going through this module, you are
expected to:
1.Understand and describe the features of early
Earth; and
2.Understand the theories on the how life could
have emerged
Mechanisms That Produce Change in Populations
from Generation to Generation

All living organism on Earth is related to one

another. The theory of evolution states that all living
organisms have a common ancestor, but because of
millions of years of evolution, each of the organisms
became what they are today.
Natural selection acts to encourage traits and
behaviors that increase the likelihood of an
organism’s chance for survival and reproduction,
while eradicating those traits and behaviors that
are disadvantageous to the organism. In natural
selection, it can only select, or choose, traits that
are favorable, it cannot create new ones.
The force that we can attribute novel traits and
behaviors is mutation. Mutation and other sources
of variation among individuals, as well as the
evolutionary forces that act upon them, modify
populations and species.
This combination of processes has led life as we
know it today. It is misconception about
evolution that it acts upon individual organisms,
however, they act on the traits that will greatly
affect the survivability and reproduction of
individual organisms, the impact of this force in
an organism’s population is observable over time.
For example, the medium ground finch
(Geospiza fortis), a seed eating bird that lives in
the Galapagos Islands. In 1977, the population
of this bird was devastated by a long period of
drought: of 1200 birds, only 180 lived. There’s
an observation by the researchers in the drought
that there was a small supply of small, soft
seeds.
The finches fed on large, hard seeds that were
more abundant, so the birds with larger, deeper
beaks were in dominance during that time,
because they were able to crack and eat these
larger seeds, and they survived at a higher rate
than finches with smaller beaks. Since this
trait, beak depth, is an inheritable trait, the
average beak depth in the next generation of G.
fortis was far greater compared to the pre-
drought population. Natural selection acted
upon this incident. Individual finches, did not
evolve, each bird’s particular beak size did not
increase, --the proportion of large beaks in the
population increased from generation to
generation.
Population evolved, but not its individual
members. The small-scale evolution evident in
this event is microevolution, the overtime
change in populations. Macroevolutions on the
other hand, is the processes that gave rise to
new species and higher taxonomic groups with
widely divergent characters
POPULATION GENETICS
We know that a gene for a particular character
has several different alleles that code for the
different traits that is linked with the character;
e.g., in the ABO blood group system in
humans, three alleles determine the particular
blood-type protein on the surface of red blood
cells.
Each individual in a population of diploid
organisms can only carry two alleles for a
particular gene, but more than two may be
present in the individuals that comprise the
population. Mendel followed alleles as they were
inherited from parent to offspring. Biologists of the
20th century in the area of population genetics
began to study how can the selective forces of
nature change a population through the changes
in their alleles and genotypic frequencies.
Allele frequency is the rate at which a specific allele
appears within a population. We are aware that evolution
is a change in the characteristics of a population of
organisms, but behind that phenotypic change is genetic
change. Using the ABO blood type system, the frequency
of one of the alleles, Iᴬ, is the number of copies of that
allele divided by all the copies of the ABO gene in the
population. For a study in 2009 performed in the
Philippine National Red Cross, researchers found that a
frequency of Iᴬ to be 25%, Iᴮ at 25.69%, Iᴬᴮ at 5.8%, and
Iᴼ at 43.51% of the alleles respectively, and all of the
frequencies added up to 100 %. A change in this
frequency over time would establish evolution in the
population.
The allele frequency within a specific population
can change depending on environmental factors;
so, some alleles become more common than others
during the process of natural selection. Natural
selection has the ability to alter the genetic makeup
of a population. An example is if a given allele
confers a phenotype that allows an individual to
better survive or have more offspring.
Because many of those offspring will also carry the
beneficial allele, and often the
corresponding phenotype, they will have more offspring
of their own that also carry the allele, thus,
perpetuating the cycle. Over time, the allele will spread
throughout the population. Some alleles will quickly
become fixed in this way, meaning that every individual
of the population will carry the allele, while detrimental
mutations may be swiftly eliminated if derived from a
dominant allele from the gene pool, it is the sum of all
the alleles in a population.
Allele frequencies could also change randomly
with no advantage to the population compared
to other existing allele frequencies, this
phenomenon is called genetic drift. Genetic
drift along with natural selection usually occur
simultaneously in populations and they are not
isolated events. It is hard to determine which
process rules because it is often nearly
impossible to determine the cause of change in
allele frequencies at each occurrence.
Founder effect is the term called for the event that
initiates a change in allele frequency in a population
that is not typical of the original population. Natural
selection, genetic drift, and founder effects can lead to
noteworthy changes in a population's genome.
THE HARDY WEINBERG PRINCIPLE OF
EQUILIBRIUM
The Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium
states that the allele and genotypic frequency of a
population will remain constant from generation
to generation, unless there’s a presence of
disturbing factors. This was theorized by English
mathematician Godfrey Hardy and physician
Wilhelm Weinberg; they independently derived
this principle in 1908.
This principle assumes conditions with no
mutations, migration, emigration, or selective
pressure for or against genotype, plus an infinite
population. Although there’s no such population
that could satisfy those conditions, the principle
offers a useful guide against which to compare real
population changes.
With this theory as guide, population geneticists represent different
alleles as different variables in their mathematical models. The
variable p, often represents the frequency of a particular allele, for
example, Y is the trait of yellow for the Mendel’s peas, while the
variable q represents the frequency of y alleles that confer the color
green. If these are the only two possible alleles for a given locus in
the population, p + q = 1. In other words, all the p alleles and all
the q alleles comprise all of the alleles for that locus in the
population.
The frequencies of the resulting genotypes are known as the genetic
structure of the population, this can help biologists to make an
assumption of the phenotypic distribution. If only the phenotypes
are observed, one can only know the homozygous recessive allele’s
genotype. The calculations provide an estimate of the other
genotypes. Since there are two alleles per gene, if we know the allele
frequencies (p and q), predicting the genotypes’ frequencies is a
simple mathematical calculation to determine the probability of
obtaining these genotypes if we draw two alleles at random from the
gene pool.
In the previous scenario, a pea plant could be pp (YY), and thus
produce yellow peas; pq (Yy) which is also yellow; or qq (yy), and
will produce green peas. In other words, the frequency of pp
individuals is simply p2; the frequency of pq individuals is 2pq;
and the frequency of qq individuals is q2. Again, if p and q are
the only two possible alleles for a
given trait in the population, these genotypes frequencies will
sum to one: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.
In accordance to the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, if a
population is at equilibrium, there are no evolutionary
forces acting upon it—generation after generation would
have the same gene pool and genetic structure, and
these equations would all hold true all of the time.
Though this is the condition for the Hardy-Weinberg
principle, the principle still recognize that there is no
population that does not have evolution. Populations in
nature are constantly changing in genetic makeup due
to drift, mutation, possibly migration, and selection.
To actually determine the exact distribution of phenotypes
in a population, the way is to go out and count them.
Because of the Hardy Weinberg principle, there is a
mathematical baseline of a non-evolving population to
which scientist can compare evolving populations and
thereby infer baseline of a non-evolving population to which
they can compare evolving populations and thereby infer
what evolutionary forces might be at play. If the frequencies
of alleles or genotypes deviate from the value expected from
the Hardy-Weinberg equation, then the population is
evolving.
A population's individuals often display different phenotypes, or
express different alleles of a particular gene, which we refer as
polymorphism, a population called polymorphic has two or more
variations of a particular characteristic. Population variation, the
distribution of phenotypes among individuals, is influenced by a
number of factors, such as population’s genetic structure and the
environment. The importance of understanding the phenotypic
variation sources in a population is determining how a population
will evolve in response to different evolutionary pressures.
GENETIC VARIANCE
Natural selection and some of the other evolutionary forces can only
act on heritable traits, an organism’s genetic code. Because alleles
are passed from parent to offspring, those that confer beneficial
traits or behaviors may be selected, while harmful alleles may not.
Acquired traits, are not heritable, however, are not heritable.
Heritability is the fraction of phenotype variation that
we can attribute to genetic differences, or genetic
variance, among individuals in a population, with it
being greater in number in a population, there will be
more chance for evolution.
Genetic variance is the diversity of alleles in a population. It is
importance to maintain this genetic variance in a population.
Inbreeding, the mating of closely related individuals, can give
undesirable effect of bringing together deadly recessive mutations
that can cause abnormalities and susceptibility to disease. This is
why in most countries, inbreeding is illegal.
When there is greater genetic variance, the likelihood of
obtaining a rare, recessive allele that might exist in a
population is lower. When a family of carriers begins to
interbreed with each other, this will dramatically increase
the likelihood of two carriers mating and eventually
producing diseased offspring, a phenomenon that scientists
call inbreeding depression. This is because recessive alleles
might only manifest itself when there’s two copies of that
recessive allele.
THE MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION:
1.GENETIC DRIFT
This theory came from the observation that some individuals
in a population are more likely to survive longer and have
more offspring than others, thus, they will pass on more of
their genes to the next generation. For example, a male
gorilla who’s bigger and stronger will become a pack leader,
the alpha. The alpha will get to mate more than their
underlings, who are smaller and weaker, so the alpha will
father more offspring. This will make the future generation of
these gorillas to be more powerful and bigger. This is
because of the selection pressure, driving selective force,
were the only one acting on the population.
The gene pool is affected by
genetic drift is simply due to
chance. A male organism
could father more offspring
simply because they are at
the right place, at the right
time (in the presence of a
receptive female).
Small populations are more affected by this
force; large populations are however not
that affected as there is a buffer against the
effect of chance. This force, unlike natural
selection does not choose which trait will
benefit the organisms more.
Natural disasters that kill at random a
large population, can magnify genetic
drift, known as the bottleneck effect.
This result to suddenly wiping out of a
huge portion of the genome, an
organism’s complete set of genetic
instructions. The population’s entire
genetic structure is dependent of its
survivors, which is very different from
the pre-disaster population.
Founder effect is when some portion of the population
leaves to start a new population in a new location or if a
physical barrier divides a population. The founder effect
occurs when the genetic structure changes to match that
of the new population’s founding fathers and mothers.
2.Gene flow is another important factor in
evolution. Gene flow is the flow of alleles in
and out of a population due to the migration of
individuals or gametes. For example, many
plants send their pollen far and wide, through
the wind or other organisms (pollinators), to
pollinate other populations of the same species
from a distance. This variable flow of
individuals in and
out of the group not only changes the
population's gene image structure, but it
can also introduce new genetic variation to
populations in different geological
locations and habitats.
3.MUTATION
Mutations are the changes that occur to an organism’s DNA and are
very important driver of diversity in populations. This enables
organisms to change over time. The appearance of new mutations is
the most common way to introduce novel genotypic and phenotypic
variance. They could be either favorable or unfavorable, though
harmful ones are quickly eliminated by natural selection. Those
beneficial ones get to be spread through the population. Whether or
not it is beneficial or detrimental is determined by how it support an
organism to survive to sexual maturity and reproduce. Some
mutations do not do anything and can linger, unaffected by natural
selection, in the genome. Some can have a dramatic effect on a gene
and the resulting phenotype.
4.NONRANDOM MATING
In this mechanism, an individual may either prefer to mate
with others of the same genotype or of different genotypes.
One reason this occurs is because of mate choice. For
example, female peahens may prefer peacocks with bigger,
brighter tails. Natural selection picks traits that lead to more
mating selections for an individual. One common form of
mate choice, called assortative mating, is an individual’s
preference to mate with partners who are phenotypically
similar to themselves.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
This mechanism is due to human intervention. Humans cause
selection because they select which phenotypes of organisms will be
beneficial. This practice has been used for so much in the human
history, it was a factor that gave people to produce crops and
animals that are more efficient or have desirable traits, such as
plants that produce larger fruits and vegetables, or cows that
produce more milk. It also helps to eradicate some undesirable
diseases.
RECOMBINATION
Genetic diversity can also arise from recombination of the
DNA from two different cells (via transformation, transduction,
or conjugation). By transferring advantageous alleles, such as
ones for antibiotic resistance, genetic recombination can
promote adaptive evolution in prokaryotic populations.
5.NATURAL SELECTION
This is the most famous mechanism of evolution, and the
most widely accepted one. Natural selection is the
reproduction of individuals with favorable genetic traits that
survive environmental change because of those traits, leading
to evolutionary change. This happens when an allele makes
an organism have beneficial or detrimental traits, and those
traits that will be beneficial for an organism’s survival and
perpetuity will be chosen over the ones that are nonbeneficial
or harmful. Allele that reduces an organism’s chance for
survival and reproduction gets eradicated over time.
Activity 6.2.
Matching type: Choose the best answer from the box
A. bottleneck effect B. allele frequency C.
inbreeding depression
D. population genetics E. genetic drift F. gene
pool
_______________1. rate at which a specific allele appears within a population
_______________2. The collection of all the alleles that the individuals in the population
carry
_______________3. study of how selective forces change the allele frequencies in a
population over time
__________E_____4. The effect of chance on a population’s gene pool
_______________5. increase in abnormalities and diseases due to inbreeding
_______________6. magnification of genetic drift as a result of natural events or
Activity 6.4
1. Would genetic drift better be expressed and be
quickly expressed on an island compared to a
mainland? Why?
Activity 6.5
Explain the phrase, “Survival of the
fittest.”