METHODS OF RESEARCH

03 JULY , 2021 LECTURE

BY
DR. LEDA CELIS
 METHODS OF RESEARCH
• HOW RESEARCH SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT;
• AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK;
• STRUCTURE AND STRATEGY OF
INVESTIGATION TO OBTAIN ANSWERS TO
RESEARCH PROBLEMS;
• PLAN FOR SELECTING SUBJECTS, LOCALE AND
DATA COLLECTION, PROCEDURES FOR
ANSWERING THE QUESTIONS
 RELIABILITY
• Refers to the consistency, stability and
dependability of the data.
• A reliable measuring device is one which, if
used for the second time will yield the same
results as it did the first time;
• If the results are substantially different, the
measurement is unreliable.
 VALIDITY

• Refers to the extent to which a measurement

does what it is supposed to do which is to
measure what it intends to measure.
• Valid data are not only reliable, but also true
and sound
• A researcher must select a research design that
will yield and accurate information and avoid
factors that can invalidate study results.
 QUANTITATIVE METHOD

• A method which uses statistics to analyze and

interpret the data.
• Refers to both descriptive and experimental;
 DESCRIPTIVE
• Describes what is. It involves the description, recording, analysis,
and interpretation of the present nature, composition, or processes
of phenomena.
• It is fact finding with adequate interpretation;
• Beyond data gathering as the real meaning of the data collected
should be reported from the point of view of the objectives and the
basic assumption of the project;
• It is concerned with conditions of relationships that exist, practices
that prevail, beliefs, processes that are going on, effects that are
being left or trends that are developing;
• Concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing, analysis of
relationships between non-manipulated variables and the
development of the generalization.
 KINDS OF DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
• SURVEY METHOD
• NORMATIVE METHOD
• CO-RELATIONAL METHOD
• EVALUATIVE METHOD
• ASSESSMENT METHOD
• COMPARATIVE METHOD
• CONTINUITY METHOD
• TREND AND PERSPECTIVE METHOD
• NARRATIVE METHOD
• EX-POST FACTO METHOD
• CASE STUDY METHOD
• EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
 SURVEY METHOD
• Usually used by graduate and undergraduate students
when they attempt to analyze, interpret and report the
present status of their subject matter or problems;
• Applicable in big sample or larger population and uses a
questionnaire or other instruments to generate data
prepared by the researcher.
• Survey designs are procedures in quantitative research in
which you administer a survey questionnaire to a small
group of people called the sample to identify trends in
attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a large
group of people (called the population).
 NORMATIVE METHOD
• Describes the status of events and people or subjects as they
exist;
• Attempts to establish norms or standards based on a wide
class of survey data. The survey data maybe a demographic
data or they may include data on ‘average perceptions’ of a
set of respondents.
• Employed to process the data that come to the researcher
through observation;
• Discrete data, as different from historical data, which come to
the researcher through written records as the subject matter
of chemistry is different from literature;
• Deals with standardized instruments like mental ability test,
stress and personality questionnaire, morale and job
satisfaction questionnaire and have established norms.
 CO-RELATIONAL METHOD
• Used to determine whether or not there is a
relationship that exists between two or more
quantifiable variables, and if there is, to what
extent or degree the relationship is. When a
relationship is determined, the researcher
identify whether such relationship is positive
or negative and the degree or strength of
relationship.
 EVALUATIVE METHOD
• The method answers the following questions:

A. What are the goals and objectives of the program

being evaluated?
B. What are the intended results of the program?
C. Are the intended results of the program achieved?
D. Are there other unintended results of the program? If
there is, were they positive or negative?
E. Are the results of the program sufficient to warrant
continuation?
 ASSESSMENT METHOD
• A fact finding activity that describes conditions
that exist at a particular time such as practices
and beliefs;
• No hypothesis are proposed or tested.
• No variable relationships are examined and no
recommendations for actions are suggested.
• There is no element of value judgment.
 COMPARATIVE METHOD
• Provides an explanation about the extent of
relationship between two or more variables;
• The researcher examines the relationships
including similarities or differences among
several variables.
• The variables studied might represent
characteristics of the same group of
respondents or those of separate groups.
 CONTINUITY METHOD
• The researcher is knowledgeable about the
operation of natural or social forces which
maybe obtained by watching them analytically
at stated intervals in their development over a
long period of time as seen desirable and
possible. (known as genetic method);
 TREND AND PERSPECTIVE METHOD
• Based upon longitudinal recorded data, indicating what
has been happening in the past, what the present
situation reveals and on the basis of this data it projects
what is likely to happen in the future.
• Used to project the demands that will be made in the
future.
• Used of regression equations in predictions;
• Examples are cohort studies with members do not
change for a period of time, while trend studies samples
a population whose members change overtime.
 NARRATIVE METHOD
• Studies that tell about the results of the study.
There is no comparative nor co-relational
analysis made.
• EXAMPLES:
• Impression of commerce students on STDs;
• The use of Virgin coconut oil in the cure of
cancer;
 EX-POST FACTO METHOD
• This method allows the researcher to establish
a causal effect between existing conditions.
The researcher wants to find out the answer
to questions but cannot manipulate the
independent variable for practical or ethical
reasons.
 CASE STUDY METHOD
• Case study is an intensive and descriptive analysis of a single
subject. It examines a social unit as a whole and the unit
maybe a single typical individual, a family, a social group, a
social institution or a community.
• This study is undertaken on a premise that someone who is
typical of a target population can be located and studied;
• Case study can be obtained from several sources such as
direct observation, information provided by the researcher
informants, interviews, psychological tersts, questionnaires
and inventories recorded data from newspapers, school
courts, clinics, government agencies, and archival records or
documents.
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• An experiment is a test, a procedure used to find out something not
presently known. It is longitudinal or repeated measures studies. It is
an intervention as the researcher do more than mere observing the
subjects.
• Usually carried out in order to discover the cause of a phenomenon;
• Experiments are kind of a structured observation to determine cause
and effect relationship, and an effective way in developing accurate
description of behavior.
• Involves the manipulation of one or more variables (factors) as well
as the measurement of the effects of such manipulation on behavior.
The factors that the researcher controls or manipulates are called
independent variables and the measures used to assess the effect s
of the independent variables are the dependent variables.
 HISTORICAL METHOD
• The purpose is to collect, verify and synthesize
evidence from the past to establish facts that
defend or refute your hypothesis.
• It uses secondary sources and variety of
primary documentary evidence such as logs,
diaries, official records, reports, archives and
non-textual information like maps, pictures,
audio and visual recordings. The sources must
be authentic and valid.
 SAMPLING PLANS, DESIGNS AND
TECHNIQUES
• SAMPLING
• -is the process of getting information from a proper subset or
population.
• - purpose is the describe the population characteristics through
the values obtained from a sample;
• - the process of choosing a representative portion of a
population or some elements in a population that will represent
the entire population.
• SAMPLE – characteristics of the chosen elements which reflect
the characteristics of the entire population;
• TOTAL ENUMERATION OR CENSUS – requires the study of all
elements in the population;
 POPULATION
• This refers to the total number of elements
(items, objects, areas or individuals) to be studied.
• POPULATION ELEMENT – this pertains to an item,
an object, an area or an individual on which data
will be taken. It is considered the unit of study.
• TARGET POPULATION – that is the population for
which representative information is desired;
• SAMPLING POPULATION – population from which
a sample is actually drawn
 SAMPLE
• refers to an individual, an element or a group
of individuals or elements on which
information is obtained. The sample is drawn
from a population to which research results
are generalized. refers to an individual, an
element or a group of individuals or elements
on which information is obtained. The sample
is drawn from a population to which research
results are generalized.
 WHY STUDY A SAMPLE
• It is cheaper – since the sample is smaller than the entire
population, collection and processing of data, costs much less.
• It is faster – definitely quicker to study fewer individuals or
elements than an entire population;
• It is more accurate – Fewer errors are expected in data
collection and processing in a study of a sample than in a study
of the entire population. The study of the sample allows for a
more thorough investigation, better supervision and better
handling of data than is possible with complete coverage;
• It can yield more comprehensive information – A small sample
can be more thoroughly investigated and can yield more
comprehensive information than a big population.
 BASIC TYPES OF SAMPLING
• NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING – is arbitrary (non-random) and is
generally subjective. Data gatherers choose sample cases, ‘as they wish’
or ‘wherever they find them’. It does not provide every member of the
population an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. The
probability of the chance of an element to be chosen as a sample is
unknown.
• One disadvantage of using this sampling technique is the possibility of
bias. A bias is the greater probability of certain type/class of sample
units/elements to be included in the selected sample. The conclusion
derived from a non-probability sample is limited to the sample itself.
• PROBABILITY SAMPLING – Is based on the concept of random
selection, a procedure that assures that all elements in the population
are given an equal chance of being selected as a sample unit.
 2 COMMON WAYS TO CHOOSE PERSONS OR
ELEMENTS TO INCLUDE IN A NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLE:
• ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING – the investigator
selects the sample units as they become
available;
• PURPOSIVE SAMPLING – the investigator uses
a specific purpose in selecting a sample;
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• The five most common techniques used are
the following:
• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING WITH A RANDOM
START
• STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
• CLUSTER SAMPLING
• MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

• A process of selecting sample cases or subset

of sample cases from a population, giving all
the sampling units equal chances of being
included in a sample;
• Can be done by ‘drawing of lots’ or with the
use of ‘table of random digits’
 DRAWING OF LOTS
• Pieces of paper (same size, same color) on
which the names or symbol of the elements of
the population is written, is placed in a
container and mixed. Then the desired
number of elements is drawn, either with
replacement or without replacement.
USING TABLE OF RANDOM DIGITS
• A table containing randomly arranged numbers, in columns and
in rows. From a random start, numbers within the total number
of population are drawn in a particular direction until the desired
number of samples are selected. The study sample will constitute
the elements represented by the numbers or symbols drawn.
• Restricted type – after drawing a sample, the chosen element is
returned to the container before the next sample element is
selected;
• Unrestricted type – a chosen element is not replaced. After
drawing the first sample, the second sample is drawn next. The
first sample unit drawn next. The first sample unit drawn is not
anymore returned nor replaced.
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING WITH A RANDOM START

• A method of selecting a sample from a population by

taking the kth units from an ordered population, from the
first unit which is selected at random.
• K – Sampling interval (total population/desired sample
size)
• A method of selecting a sample from a population by
taking the kth units from an ordered population, from the
first unit which is selected at random.
• K – Sampling interval (total population/desired sample
size)
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

• Is the process of selecting a random sample from

subgroups or strata into which a population has been
subdivided. A population is made up of groups of
elements with a varied characteristics which can
possibly affect observations or responses.
• The population is stratified into more or less
homogenous subgroups or strata, before sampling is
done.
• From such subgroup, a sub sample is drawn using either
simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a
random start.
 Illustration on how to compute:
Types of farmer population Sampling fraction Sample size
Rice farmers 30 30/75 x30 12
Sugar Farmers 20 20/75 x 30 8
Vegetable farmers 10 10/75 x 30 4
Cutflower 15 15/75 x 30 6
producers
Total 75 30

Steps involved:
Classify 75 farmers
Determine the overall sample size using an appropriate formula. Example 30
Allocate the needed sample size (n) among the four strata either equally, if the sub
populations are more or less equal; or proportionately, if the numbers of the various
strata vary. To do this divide the stratum size by the population sie (N) and multiply the
quotient by the needed sample size.
With the sub-sample size determine, select the sample from each stratum, using
either simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start.
 Cluster Sampling
• Method of selecting a sample of groups or clusters of
elements. Clusters are usually exclusive sub-populations
which together comprise a population.
• Each cluster consists of heterogeneous elements and
each is typical of the population. The number of clusters
in the population represents the size of the population
of clusters, while the number of elements in a cluster is
called cluster size.
• The sample clusters can be drawn using simple random
sampling or systematic sampling with a random start.
 Cluster Sampling
• STEPS INVOLVED:
• Number the 10 groups consecutively from 01 to 10;
• Using simple random sampling, draw five numbers. Suppose
numbers 2,6,5,9,1 are chosen;
• Identify the groups represented by the numbers drawn;
• Study all the students in the five sample classes. STEPS INVOLVED:
• Number the 10 groups consecutively from 01 to 10;
• Using simple random sampling, draw five numbers. Suppose
numbers 2,6,5,9,1 are chosen;
• Identify the groups represented by the numbers drawn;
• Study all the students in the five sample classes.
 MULTI- STAGE SAMPLING

• The selection of the sample is accomplished in two or more

stages.
• The population is first divided into a number of first stage units
from which a sample is drawn.
• Then the population in the sampled first stage units are divided
into second stage units;
• More stages maybe added, if desired by dividing the
population into a hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to
the different sampling stages.
• This process is usually used when the population can be
divided into hierarchies. The sampling process in each
hierarchy is considered one stage.
 ILLUSTRATION
• (MEN’S PARTICIPATION IN CHILD CARE) 135
MARRIED MEN WITH 0-6 CHILDREN IN A
CERTAIN PROVINCE.
• Population : ALL THE MEN WITH 0-6 YEARS OLD
CHILDREN IN THE PROVINCE;
• SAMPLING FRAME: LIST MEN WITH 0-6 YEAR
OLD CHILDREN;
• SAMPLING UNIT: A MAN WITH 0-6 YEAR OLD
CHILDREN
 STEPS INVOLVED:

• Draw sample towns in the province. List the names of all

the towns in the province and using simple random
sampling draw the three sample towns;
• Draw a sample of barangays in the sample towns. Secure a
list of all the barangays in each of the three sample towns
and using simple random samling draw three sample
towns;
• Draw a sample of married men in the sample barangays in
the three sample towns. Using the SRS or systematic
sampling with a random start, select the sample men in
each of the sample barangays.
 TO CALCULATE THE SAMPLE SIZE REQUIRED FOR
ACCURACY IN ESTIMATING PROPORTIONS,THE
FOLLOWING QUESTIONS SHALL BE ASKED:
• What are the reasonable estimates of key proportions to be
measured in the study? Example: acceptability of land reform
among lowland farmers. If
• What degree of accuracy do you want or how far can you allow
your sample estimates of key proportions to deviate from the true
proportions in the Ɛ⁴⁴⁴⁴population as a whole? To be confident of
the results, usually the 0.01 or 0.05% shall be used.
• What confidence level (Z) do you want to use? How confident do
you want that your sample estimate is as accurate as you wish?
Usually the 95% confidence level is specified and the Z is
represented by 1.96 as its value.
• What is the size of the population (N) that the sample is supposed
to represent?
• The sample size can be computed to measure the given proportion, with
a given degree of accuracy, at a given level of statistical significance by
using a simple formula. This formula is recommended if the population is
more than 10,000.

• n = Z²pq
d²
Where:
n= the desired sample size;
• Z = the standard normal deviate, usually set at 1.96, which corresponds
to the 95% level of confidence.
• p= the proportion in the target population estimated to have a
particular characteristic. If there is not reasonable estimate, then use
50% or .50
• q= 1.0 – p
• d= degree of accuracy desired, usually set at either .05; 0.2; or .01
• for example, if you want to determine the sample
size of a study in which the population is over
10,000 and if the proportion of a target
population with a certain characteristic is .50 and
if the level of confidence you want to use is 95%
or the Z statistic 1.96; and if you desire an
accuracy level of .05, then the sample size is
computed as:

• n= (1.96)²(1-.50) (.50)
(.05)²
= 384
• In the following formula which is also commonly used in
calculating the sample size. Unlike the first formula, the total
population (N) is considered: (MILDRED PARTEN’S FORMULA)
• n= NZ²pq
Nd² + 2pq
• Where:
• N= population
• n= the desired sample size
• Z= the standard normal deviate, set at 1.96,
corresponding to 95% level of Confidence
• p= the proportion in the target population estimated
to have a particular characteristic, 50% (.50);
• d= degree of accuracy desired, usually set at
either .05, .025, or .01
• shown below are sample sizes (n) required for populations (N) of 50 to 3000 with a desired
reliability (Z) of 0.95, a proportion (p) of 0.50, and a maximum sampling error (d) of
0.025(1) , 0.05 (2) and 0.10 (3), respectively.
N n N n N n
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
50 48 44 33 1050 634 281 88 2050 899 324 92
100 94 79 50 1100 652 285 88 2100 908 325 92
150 137 108 59 1150 669 288 89 2150 918 326 92
200 178 132 65 1200 686 291 89 2200 927 327 92
250 216 151 69 1250 702 294 89 2250 935 328 92
300 253 168 73 1300 717 297 89 2300 944 329 92
350 287 183 75 1350 732 299 90 2350 952 330 92
400 320 196 77 1400 747 301 90 2400 960 331 92
450 351 207 79 1450 761 304 90 2450 968 332 92
500 381 217 81 1500 774 306 90 2500 976 333 92
550 409 226 82 1550 787 308 90 2550 983 334 93
600 436 234 83 1600 800 310 91 2600 991 335 93
650 462 241 84 1650 812 312 91 2650 998 336 93
700 487 248 84 1700 824 313 91 2700 1005 336 93
750 511 254 85 1750 836 315 91 2750 1012 337 93
800 533 260 86 1800 847 317 91 2800 1018 338 93
850 555 265 86 1850 858 318 91 2850 1025 339 93
900 576 269 87 1900 869 320 91 2900 1031 339 93
950 596 274 87 1950 879 321 92 2950 1038 340 93
1000 615 278 88 2000 889 322 92 3000 1044 341 93
 THE SLOVINS’FORMULA
• USED, IF THERE IS IGNORANCE OF THE BEHAVIOR
• n= N
• 1 + Ne²
• Where:
• N = population size
• n= sample size
• e= Desired margin of error (percent allowance
for non-precision because of the use of the sample
instead of the population);
 EXAMPLE
• Find the sample size required for a population
of N = 1000, if an error of e = .05 is tolerated.

• ANSWER:
• HERE n= (1000) (1 + 1000) (.05) (.05)
• = 286
RULE: (Dean Milagros Ibe, Miriam College
Graduate School Dean)
• “For descriptive studies, 10% of the population
(if large) is the minimum acceptable sample size,
while 25% of the population if it is large enough.
• For co-relational studies, 30 subjects are advised;
• For causal-comparative method or ex-post facto
design, 15 sample size per group is desired;
• In experimental methods, 15 subjects per group,
while other authorities may allow 10 subjects per
group.
 Workshop No. 4
• INSTRUCTIONS: Restate your research problem and objectives. Then identify your
study population and the most appropriate sampling technique you intend to use.
Determine your sample size and explain how you will draw your sample. Write
your answers in the space provided. Use another sheet of paper if necessary.

• My research problem is ______________________________________________;

• The objectives of my study are: ________________________________________;
• The hypothesis of my study are________________________________________;
• The Research Design that I will use is ______________________because_______;
• My target population consists of _____________________________ (total);
• The sampling technique that I will use is __________________________________
• Because____________________________________________________________;
• Using the following formula __________________________________ to compute
for the sample size, my sample size is ____________________________________;
• To draw my sample, I will follow the following steps:
• (Describe in detail)
___________________________________________________________________
• ___________________________________________________________________
 DATA COLLECTION
• WHAT ARE DATA?
• Refers to any kind of information researchers obtain on
the subjects, respondernts or participants of a study. In
research, data are collected and used to answer the
research question or objectives of the study.
• WHAT ARE DATA?
• Refers to any kind of information researchers obtain on
the subjects, respondernts or participants of a study. In
research, data are collected and used to answer the
research question or objectives of the study.
 EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH DATA
• Demographic information such as (age, sex, household size,
civil status, religion)
• Social and Economic Information such as (educational
attainment, health status, extent of participation in social
organization, occupation, income, housing condition and the
like);
• Scores in a standardized or researcher-made tests or results of
laboratory examination and clinical observations of
patients/clients.
• Grades or ratings obtained from records or forms;
• Verbal or written responses to questions regarding attitudes
towards and perceptions of something.
 QUANTITATIVE VS QUALITATIVE DATA
• Quantitative data are information which can be counted or
expressed in numerical values;
• EXAMPLES: Age, grades, income, test score, number of
children, level of satisfaction, amount of sales, length of
service.
• Qualitative data descriptive information which has no
numerical value.
• EXAMPLES: Attitudes towards or perception of something,
process used in accomplishing an activity, a persons’
experiences, one’s idea about certain concepts, situation, or
phenomenon like drug abuse, family planning, barangay
justice system, underground economy, sexual harassment, etc.
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
• Primary data are information collected
directly from the subjects being studied, such
as people, areas or objects;
• Secondary Data – are information collected
from other available sources like recent
censuses, or data collected by large scale
national or world wide surveys such as
agriculture and industry surveys, demographic
and health surveys, data completed studies.
 TECHNIQUES OF COLLECTING
QUANTITATIVE DATA
• Two most common means of collecting
primary quantitative information are the:

1. Self-administered questionnaire
2. Structured interview
3. Secondary sources like service statistics
SELF-ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE
• Questionnaires are distributed to the
respondents who write their answers to the
questions in appropriate spaces in the
questionnaire. It can be administered
individually or in group by the researcher or
by authorized individual.
 FEATURES OF A SELF-ADMINISTERED
QUESTIONNAIRE
• Questionnaires are given to the respondents
who are asked to read and answer the
questions themselves;
• Questions and instructions are addressed to
the respondents;
• Instructions on how to accomplish the
questionnaire are clearly specified in the
instrument.
ADVANTAGES OF USING A SELF-ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE

• Less expensive per respondent than an

interview;
• A questionnaire requires less time and less
skills for data gathering and proceedings;
• External influence is avoided;
• Respondents have time to think before
answering because they are not under
pressure to give an answer immediately;
 DISADVANTAGES OF USING A SELF-
ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE
• Per respondent cost of self-administered
questionnaires maybe low but return rate is also
generally low, usually less than 50%;
• Many respondents do not return accomplished
questionnaires;
• Respondents included in the sample may not be
representative of the population being studied;
• No one will answer or clarify questions that may arise;
• Questionnaires cannot be used on illiterate
respondents.
 MAILED QUESTIONNAIRES
• Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents
and respondents are asked to mail back the
accomplished questionnaires;
• Drawback is the high non-response rate often
less than 50% and this affect the
representativeness of the sample and may
render the validity of the findings
questionable.
 STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
• Involves a face to face interaction between the data collector (the
interviewer) and the source of information (the respondent). The
interviewer directly asks the respondent questions from a prepared
instrument called as interview schedule.
• FEATURES:
• 1. interviewer reads each question to the respondent and record
verbatim in the instrument the answers provided by the
respondent;
• 2. respondents are asked the exact questions as formulated and as
sequenced;
• 3. instructions for the interviewer on how questions should be
asked and how answers are to be recorded are incorporated in the
instrument.
ADVANTAGES
• The interviewer/ investigator can observe the body language of
the respondent;
• The interviewer can probe for clarification of ambiguous
responses;
• Interview is effective for semi-literate or illiterate respondents;
• The expected response rate in an interview is high.
DISADVANTAGES
• The cost in terms of money, time and personnel per
respondent is high, especially because of travel cost;
• Skilled interviewers are required. Training is needed for those
who lack experience and or those who are not yet skilled in
conducting interviews. Even skilled interviewers require
briefing on features or aspects of data collection peculiar to a
particular project.
 HOW TO CONDUCT INTERVIEWS
• Locate the survey respondents;
• Obtain permission to conduct the interview;
• Ask the questions;
• Record the answers given by the respondents
as instructed
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)
• An informal in-depth discussion in which a small number of
participants (6-12) under the guidance of the moderator or
facilitator talk about topics of special importance to a
particular research issue;
• Participants are purposively selected from a defined target
population whose opinions and ideas re relevant to the
research;
• FGD can provide relatively quick answers to specific questions
and are often used in the formulation of hypotheses before
surveys are designed or to clarify ambiguous survey findings.
• FGD cannot be used to generalize to a larger population, so the
methodology is not appropriate for testing a hypothesis in the
tradition of an experimental design.
 FEATURES OF FGD
• FGD participants are purposively selected from a defined
target population whose opinions and ideas are relevant to
the research;
• Usually more than one FGD is necessary to adequately
cover the range of participants characteristics and issues;
• Important ideas/facts brought up during the discussion are
recorded and later analyzed and used as bases for
recommendations;
• The FGD facilitator stimulates participants to talk to each
other about a certain issue/topics rather than talk to the
moderator.
 STEPS IN PREPARING AN FGD GUIDE
• Determine first what background information is needed from
the respondents to evaluate their comments during the session;
• Prepare a list of topics from the more general to specific topics
of interest;
• Generate a list of probing questios for each major topic area.
These questions will be used just in case the information given
by the participants need clarification or does not emerge
spontaneously;
• Prepare introductory stimulus materials and transition
approaches for new topics;
• Assign, based on priority and complexity a rough time estimate
for each topic.
 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
• The researcher gets involved in the situation or in the
activities of the group he or she is studying. It can be
covert or overt. Covert if researcher is identified and the
subjects are aware that they are being observed, and
overt if the identity of the researcher is not known to the
subjects and the researcher takes part in all activities of
the group and acts like the group members.
• (example. The researcher may immerse self as part of the
group being involved in the group the researcher is able
to observe and at the same time experience what the
members experience.
 NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
• The researcher is not directly involved in the situation or
activities being observed. Instead the researcher tries to see
thigs as they happen without disrupting the participants.
Researcher just sits in the sideline. ( example: a typical day in the
life of a government employee. Researcher can only observe and
record what government employees in the office from time to
time they enter the office until they leave The researcher is not
directly involved in the situation or activities being observed.
Instead the researcher tries to see thigs as they happen without
disrupting the participants. Researcher just sits in the sideline.
( example: a typical day in the life of a government employee.
Researcher can only observe and record what government
employees in the office from time to time they enter the office
until they leave
 CONTENT ANALYSIS
• A study of the documents or records such as textbooks, newspapers,
historical documents and other written materials which are relevant in the
understanding of a research problem.
• The method is popularly used in historical studies and as a preliminary
activity in the preparation of reading materials like textbooks, brochures,
promotion pamphlets, training modules and instruction, education and
communication materials.
• CA is used in evaluating written materials for readability, completeness and
appropriateness.
• It is also used to determine the balance of information or emphasis in a
certain written material.
• An analysis of a written material can assess the stand or position or
perspective of the writers regarding certain issue or subject like cheating in
tests, homosexuality, gender issues, globalization, liberalization, faith,
capitalism, etc. another name for content analysis is document analysis.
 WORKSHOP NO 6 (DATA COLLECTION)
(for Assignment)
• INSTRUCTIONS:
• Restate the objectives of your proposed research
problem and list the specific data that you need to
collect and identify the possible sources of these
data.
Objectives Data Requirements Sources

• Identify the data collection techniques that you will

sue in your study and explain your choice.
• Describe the procedures that you will follow in
collecting your data.