476, 470, 210-212, 333-336, 867, 874. The Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland, or hypophysis cerebri, is
a reddish-grey, ovoid body, about 12 mm in transverse and 8 mm in anteroposterior diameter, and with an average adult weight of 500 mg. It is continuous with the infundibulum, a hollow, conical, inferior process from the tuber cinereum of the hypothalamus. The Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland lies at the base of
the skull in a portion of the sphenoid bone called sella turcica (Turkish saddle), which consists of a deep central area -the hypophyseal fossa. The Pituitary Gland The anterior portion of the sella turcica, the tuberculum sellae, is flanked by posterior projections of the sphenoid wings, the anterior clinoid processes. The dorsum sellae forms the posterior wall, and its upper corners project into the posterior clinoid processes. The gland is surrounded by dura, and the roof is formed by a reflection of the dura attached to the clinoid processes, the diaphragma sellae. The arachnoid membrane and, therefore, cerebrospinal fluid are prevented from entering the sella turcica by the diaphragma sellae. The pituitary stalk and its blood vessels pass through an opening in this diaphragm. The lateral walls of the gland are in direct apposition to the cavernous sinuses and separated from them by dural membranes. The optic chiasm lies 5 to 10 mm above the diaphragma sellae and anterior to the stalk. The Pituitary Gland The pituitary has two major parts, the anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis and the posterior pituitary also known as neurohypophysis, which differ in their origin, structure and function. Between these portions is a small, relatively avascular zone called the pars intermedia, which is much less developed in the human. The neurohypophysis is a diencephalic downgrowth connected with the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary, adenohypophysis, originates from Rathke pouch, an ectodermal evagination of the oropharynx, and migrates to join the neurohypophysis. Both include parts of the infundibulum. The Pituitary Gland The adenohypophysis is highly vascular. Most of the hormones synthesized by the adenohypophysis are trophic. Hormones synthesized by the adenohypophysis are– Growth Hormone (GH), Prolactin, Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH). Neurones that secrete the peptides and amines that control the anterior lobe are widely distributed within the hypothalamus. The Pituitary Gland The axons arising from groups of hypothalamic neurones (e.g. the magnocellular neurones of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei) terminate in the neurohypophysis. The long magnocellular axons pass to the main mass of the neurohypophysis. The neurohormones stored in the main part of the neurohypophysis are: vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone; ADH), which controls reabsorption of water by renal tubules, and oxytocin, which promotes the contraction of uterine smooth muscle in childbirth and the ejection of milk from the breast during lactation. The Pituitary Gland The arteries of the pituitary arise from the internal carotid arteries via a single inferior and several superior hypophysial arteries on each side. The superior hypophysial arteries form a capillary network in the median eminence of the hypothalamus that recombines in long portal veins draining down the pituitary stalk to the anterior lobe, where they break up into another capillary nerwork and re-form into venous channels. There are three possible routes for venous drainage of the neurohypophysis: to the adenohypophysis, via long and short portal vessels; into the dural venous sinuses, via the large inferior hypophysial veins; and to the hypothalamus, via capillaries passing to the median eminence. The venous drainage carries hypophysial hormones from the gland to their targets and also facilitates feedback control of secretion. The Pineal Gland The pineal gland or epiphysis cerebri is a small, reddish-grey organ, occupying a depression between the superior colliculi. It is inferior to the splenium of the corpus callosum, from which it is separated by the tela choroidea of the third ventricle and the contained cerebral veins. It is enveloped by the lower layer of the tela, which is reflected from the gland to the tectum. The pineal is about 8 mm long. Its base, directed anteriorly, is attached by a peduncle, which divides into inferior and superior laminae, separated by the pineal recess of the third ventricle, and containing the posterior and habenular commissures respectively. The Pineal Gland The pineal arteries are branches of the medial posterior choroidal arteries, which are themselves branches of the posterior cerebral artery. The capillaries drain into numerous pineal veins, which open into the internal cerebral veins and/or into the great cerebral vein. The pineal gland contains cords and clusters of pinealocytes, associated with astrocyte-like neuroglia. Melatonin, and its precursor 5-HT (serotonin), are synthesized from tryptophan by the pinealocytes, and secreted into the surrounding network of fenestrated capillaries. The Thyroid gland The thyroid gland is anterior in the neck below and lateral to the thyroid cartilage. It consists of: two lateral lobes - which cover the anterolateral surfaces of the trachea, the cricoid cartilage, and the lower part of the thyroid cartilage, and an isthmus that connects the lateral lobes and crosses the anterior surfaces of the second and third tracheal cartilages. The thyroid gland arises as a median outgrowth from the floor of the pharynx near the base of the tongue. The foramen cecum of the tongue indicates the site of origin and the thyroglossal duct marks the path of migration of the thyroid gland to its final adult location. The thyroglossal duct usually disappears early in development. The Thyroid gland Lying deep to the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and omohyoid muscles, the thyroid gland is in the visceral compartment of the neck. This compartment also includes the pharynx, trachea, and esophagus and is surrounded by the pretracheal layers of fascia.
There may also be functional thyroid gland:
associated with the tongue (a lingual thyroid), anywhere along the path of migration of the thyroid gland, or extending upward from the gland along the path of the thyroglossal duct (a pyramidal lobe). The Thyroid gland Two major arteries supply the thyroid gland: The superior thyroid artery and inferior thyroid artery. Superior thyroid artery – the first branch of the external carotid artery. When it reaches the superior pole of the lateral lobe of the gland it divides into anterior and posterior glandular branches.
The anterior glandular branch passes
along the superior border of the thyroid gland and anastomoses with its twin from the opposite side. The posterior glandular branch passes to the posterior side of the gland and may anastomose with the inferior thyroid artery . The Thyroid gland Inferior thyroid artery - a branch of the thyrocervical trunk, which arises from the first part of the subclavian artery. Inferior thyroid artery - ascends along the medial edge of the anterior scalene muscle, passes posteriorly to the carotid sheath, and reaches the inferior pole of the lateral lobe of the thyroid gland. At the thyroid gland it divides into an: inferior branch, which supplies the lower part of the thyroid gland and anastomoses with the posterior branch of the superior thyroid artery, and Occasionally, a small thyroid ima artery an ascending branch, which supplies the arises from the brachiocephalic trunk or the parathyroid glands. arch of the aorta and ascends on the anterior surface of the trachea to supply the thyroid gland. The Thyroid gland Three veins drain the thyroid gland: The superior thyroid vein primarily drains the area supplied by the superior thyroid artery. The middle and inferior thyroid veins drain the rest of the thyroid gland.
The superior and middle thyroid veins drain
into the internal jugular vein, and the inferior thyroid veins empty into the right and left brachiocephalic veins, respectively.
Lymphatic drainage of the thyroid gland is to
nodes beside the trachea - paratracheal nodes and to deep cervical nodes inferior to the omohyoid muscle along the internal jugular vein. The Thyroid gland The thyroid gland is closely related to the recurrent laryngeal nerves. After branching from the vagus nerve [X] and looping around the subclavian artery on the right and the arch of the aorta on the left, the recurrent laryngeal nerves ascend in a groove between the trachea and esophagus. They pass deep to the posteromedial surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland and enter the larynx by passing deep to the lower margin of the inferior constrictor of the pharynx. Together with branches of the inferior thyroid arteries, the recurrent laryngeal nerves are clearly related to, and may pass through ligaments, one on each side, that bind the thyroid gland to the trachea and to the cricoid cartilage of the larynx. These relationships need to be considered when surgically removing or manipulating the thyroid gland. The Parathyroid Glands The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small, ovoid, yellowish structures on the deep surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. They are designated as the superior and inferior parathyroid glands. Derived from the third (the inferior parathyroid glands) and fourth (the superior parathyroid glands) pharyngeal pouches, these paired structures migrate to their final adult positions and are named accordingly. The arteries supplying the parathyroid glands are the inferior thyroid arteries, and venous and lymphatic drainage follows that described for the thyroid gland. The Thymus The thymus is the most anterior component of the superior mediastinum, lying immediately posterior to the manubrium of the sternum. The left and right brachiocephalic veins are located immediately posterior to the thymus It is an asymmetrical, bilobed structure. The upper extent of the thymus can reach into the neck as high as the thyroid gland; a lower portion typically extends into the anterior mediastinum over the pericardial sac. Involved in the early development of the immune system, the thymus is a large structure in the child, begins to atrophy after puberty, and shows considerable size variation in the adult. In the elderly adult, it is barely identifiable as an organ, consisting mostly of fatty tissue that is sometimes arranged as two lobulated fatty structures. The Thymus Arteries to the thymus consist of small branches originating from the internal thoracic arteries.
Venous drainage is usually into the left
brachiocephalic vein and possibly into the internal thoracic veins.
Lymphatic drainage returns to multiple
groups of nodes at one or more of the following locations: along the internal thoracic arteries (parasternal) ; at the tracheal bifurcation (tracheobronchial); and in the root of the neck. The Suprarenal glands The suprarenal glands are associated with the superior pole of each kidney. They consist of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The adrenal medulla, the central 20 percent of the gland, secretes the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to sympathetic stimulation. The adrenal cortex secretes an entirely different group of hormones, called corticosteroids. The right gland is shaped like a pyramid, whereas the left gland is semilunar in shape and the larger of the two. Anterior to the right suprarenal gland is part of the right lobe of the liver and the inferior vena cava, whereas anterior to the left suprarenal gland is part of the stomach, pancreas, and, on occasion, the spleen. Parts of the diaphragm are posterior to both glands. The Suprarenal glands
The arterial supply to the suprarenal glands
is extensive and arises from three primary sources: As the bilateral inferior phrenic arteries pass upward from the abdominal aorta to the diaphragm, they give off multiple branches (superior suprarenal arteries) to the suprarenal glands. A middle branch (middle suprarenal artery) to the suprarenal glands usually arises directly from the abdominal aorta. Inferior branches (inferior suprarenal arteries) from the renal arteries pass upward to the suprarenal glands. The Suprarenal glands The suprarenal glands are surrounded by the perinephric fat and enclosed in the renal fascia, though a thin septum separates each gland from its associated kidney.
In contrast to this multiple arterial supply is the
venous drainage, which usually consists of a single vein leaving the hilum of each gland.
On the right side, the right suprarenal vein is
short and almost immediately enters the inferior vena cava, while on the left side, the left suprrenal vein passes inferiorly to enter the left renal vein.
The suprarenal gland is mainly innervated by
preganglionic sympathetic fibers from spinal levels T8-L1 that pass through both the sympathetic trunk and the prevertebral plexus without synapsing. These preganglionic fibers directly innervate cells of the adrenal medulla. Pancreas The head of the pancreas lies within the C-shaped concavity of the duodenum. Projecting from the lower part of the head is the uncinate process, which passes posterior to the superior mesenteric vessels. The neck of the pancreas is anterior to the superior mesenteric vessels. Posterior to the neck of the pancreas, the superior mesenteric and splenic veins join to form the portal vein. The body of the pancreas is elongate and extends from the neck to the tail of the pancreas. The tail of the pancreas passes between layers of the splenorenal ligament. Pancreas
The pancreas is composed of two
major types of tissues, as: (1) the acini, which secrete digestive juices into the duodenum, and (2) the islets of Langerhans, which secrete hormones directly into the blood. The human pancreas has 1 to 2 million islets of Langerhans. Each islet is only about 0.3 millimeter in diameter and is organized around small capillaries, into which its cells secrete their hormones. Pancreas The islets contain three major types of cells —alpha, beta, and delta cells. The beta cells, constituting about 60 percent of all the cells of the islets, lie mainly in the middle of each islet and secrete insulin and amylin. The alpha cells, about 25 percent of the total, secrete glucagon. The delta cells, about 10 percent of the total, secrete somatostatin. In addition, at least one other type of cell, the PP cell, is present in small numbers in the islets and secretes a hormone pancreatic polypeptide. And the ε cells in the islet make ghrelin. Pancreas The arterial supply to the pancreas includes the:
gastroduodenal artery from the common
hepatic artery (a branch of the celiac trunk), anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery from the gastroduodenal artery, posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal artery from the gastroduodenal artery, dorsal pancreatic artery from the inferior pancreatic artery (a branch of the splenic artery), great pancreatic artery from the inferior pancreatic artery (a branch of the splenic artery), anterior inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery from the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery (a branch of the superior mesenteric artery), and posterior inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery from the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery (a branch of the superior mesenteric artery) Pancreas the anterior superior pancreaticoduodenal vein typically joins either the confluence of the right gastroepiploic and right colic veins (the gastrocolic trunk of Henle) or the right gastroepiploic vein alone, to drain into the superior mesenteric vein at the inferior border of the neck of the pancreas. The posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal vein drains cranially into the portal vein. Both anterior and posterior inferior pancreaticoduodenal veins usually drain directly into the superior mesenteric vein. Veins from the body and tail of the gland drain directly into the splenic vein. A transverse (or inferior) pancreatic vein may be present, running along the inferior border of the pancreas to join the inferior mesenteric vein. A few pancreatic veins communicate with systemic veins in the retro- peritoneum (veins of Retzius); these may form retroperitoneal varices in portal hypertension. Pancreas Lymphatics from the tail and body drain mostly into nodes along the splenic artery and inferior border of the gland, and from there to pre- aortic nodes between the coeliac trunk and superior mesenteric artery. Lymphatics from the neck and head drain more widely into nodes along the pancreaticoduodenal, superior mesenteric and hepatic arteries, and, ultimately, into pre-aortic nodes. The pancreas is innervated by the vagus, celiac plexus and superior mesenteric plexus. The ovaries The ovaries are the sites of egg production (oogenesis). The ovaries are not only the store for germ cells-they also produce and secrete hormones that are vital for reproduction and thedevelopment of secondary sexual characteristics. The ovaries lie adjacent to the lateral pelvic wall just inferior to the pelvic inlet. Each of the two almond-shaped ovaries is about 3 cm long and is suspended by a mesentery -the mesovarium, that is a posterior extension of the broad ligament. In the ovary, the major source of hormone production is the maturing follicle. FSH stimulates growth and secretion of oestrogens in ovarian follicles and LH, induces progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum. The ovaries From the abdominal aorta arise ovarian arteries, descends along the posterior abdominal wall, at the pelvic brim they cross over the external iliac artery and enter the suspensory ligament. Branches from ovarian artery supply lateral aspect of the ovaries and uterine tubes. From the internal iliac artery arise uterine artery, gives off ascending branches which reaches medial aspect of the ovaries and uterine tubes.
Lymphatics from the ovaries and related
parts of the uterus and uterine tubes leave the pelvic cavity superiorly and drain, via vessels that accompany the ovarian arteries, directly into lateral aortic or lumbar nodes and, in some cases, into the pre-aortic nodes on the anterior surface of the aorta. The ovaries Veins draining the ovary form pampiniform plexus of veins in the broad ligament. The veins of the plexus usually merge to form a singular ovarian vein, which leaves the lesser pelvis with the ovarian artery. The right ovarian vein ascends to enter inferior vena cava, the left ovarian vein drains into the left renal vein.
Innervation of Ovaries and Uterine Tubes:
• ovarian plexus • uterine (pelvic) plexus. The Testes
Each testis is composed of seminiferous
tubules and interstitial tissue surrounded by a thick connective tissue capsule - the tunica albuginea.The testes are located within the scrotum. Spermatozoa are produced by the seminiferous tubules. The 400 to 600 highly coiled seminiferous tubules are modifiedat each end to become straight tubules, which connect to a collecting chamber - the rete testis, in a thick, vertically oriented linear wedge of connective tissue - the mediastinum testis, projecting from the capsule into the posterior aspect of the gonad. Approximately 12 to 20 efferent ductules originate from the upper end of the rete testis, penetrate the capsule, and connect with the epididymis. The Testes
The approximately 200 million
androgen-producing Leydig cells, are interspersed between the seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules are composed of Serroli cells and germinal cells. The Sertoli cells line the basement membrane and form right junctions with other Sertoli cells. FSH stimulates spermatogenesis, acting on testicular Sertoli cells. LH induces testosterone synthesis by Leydig cells in the testis. Vasculature The arterial supply to the testis and epididymis is derived from three sources. These are: the testicular artery - arises from the abdominal aorta, inferior to the origin of the renal artery. It is supplying approximately two-thirds of the testicular blood supply, the vasal artery (artery to vas deferens, artery to ductus defer- ens, vasal artery, ductal artery) - is a branch of the superior (and, occasionally, inferior) vesical artery, which arises from the internal iliac artery. and the cremasteric arteries (together supplying approximately one-third of the testicular blood supply) - is a branch of the inferior epigastric artery. Veins and lymphatics Testicular veins emerge posteriorly from the testis, drain the epididymis, and unite to form several highly anastomotic channels surrounding the testis, known as the pampiniform plexus, a major component of the spermatic cord. The pampiniform plexus ascends anterior to the vas deferens, and is drained by 3–4 veins in the inguinal canal. The veins enter the abdomen through the deep inguinal ring and coalesce into a single testicular vein that drains into the inferior vena cava on the right, and into the renal vein on the left. The testicular veins contain valves. The lymph drainage of the testes is to the lateral aortic or lumbar nodes and pre aortic nodes in the abdomen, and not to the inguinal or pelvic lymph nodes. Innervation The testis is innervated either by nerve fibres that arise from the tenth and eleventh thoracic spinal segments, via the renal and aortic plexuses, and accompany the testicular vessels, or by fibres that arise from the pelvic plexus and accompany the vas deferens. Interestingly, some afferent and efferent nerves have been shown to cross over to the contralateral pelvic plexus, which may be one reason why pathological processes in one testis can affect the other.
(14796805 - Journal of Endocrinology) Sclerocarya Birrea (Anacardiaceae) Stem-bark Extract Corrects Glycaemia in Diabetic Rats and Acts on Β-cells by Enhancing Glucose-stimulated Ins