EE 467 – POWER SYSTEMS

OPERATION AND CONTROL

Section 2: Frequency Control And

Active Power Management

Dr. E. K. Anto
Objectives
 Understand the concept of automatic load-frequency
control (ALFC), and the dependence of power system
frequency on active (or real) power demand
 Appreciate the methods used to increase the
transmittable real/active power in transmission
lines, i.e., how to increase the transmission capacity
 Appreciate the control or management of active
power in the generation and transmission systems
 Understand the dependence of power system losses on
load flows, and how these losses can be reduced
 Solve examples on active power generation in plants,
as well as active power flows in lines
2.1: Introduction – Objectives of
normal system operation
1. Maintenance of real power balance

2. Control of frequency

3. Maintenance of reactive power balance

4. Control of voltage profile

5. Maintenance of “optimum” generation schedule (economic

dispatch)

6. Maintenance of “optimum” power routing (load flow

analysis)
2.1.1: Guiding equation between
generation, demand and losses
 In normal or steady-state power system operation, the
following equation must be maintained:
 Generation=Demand + Losses
 Any imbalance between this equation will affect either
the frequency or voltage regulation
 Under steady-state or normal conditions
Frequency control is an issue of active power
balance between generation and demand
Voltage control is an issue of reactive power
balance between generation and demand
Active
Power Management in
Generation System
2.2 Control of frequency
 Itis an issue of active power balance between
generation & demand

 As the active load of the power system varies, the

rotational speed of the synchronous generators tends
to change

 Thischange in speed gives rise to a change in

frequency of the system in accordance with the relation

 The change in speed is sensed by the speed governors,

which operate to activate the controls
2.2 Control of frequency (2)
The automatic control of power system frequency
under normal state of operation is closely
intertwined with the problem of real power
balance between generation and demand.

A sudden shift in frequency is a sure sign of real

power generation-demand imbalance

The automatic load frequency control (ALFC)

system is a system that is employed to accomplish
that task
2.3 The ALFC System

 The parameter that best gives a clue about imbalance

between the real power generation and demand is the
frequency.
 And so the generation-load control or regulation is
achieved by measuring the frequency
2.3 The ALFC System (2)
 A frequency sensor-comparator senses the actual
system frequency and compares it with a reference
frequency (50 Hz in Ghana).
 A frequency error signal is generated, and is given by

 A transducer amplifies the error signal into an actuating

command which is sent on to the input to prime mover,
i.e., turbine
 The input may be steam valve (in case of thermal plant),
or gate (in case of hydro plant)
 Three (3) cases may be considered
2.3.1 Case 1: Demand equals generation,
that is, PD  PG  f  f ref and f  0
Ifthe load demand is practically met by the
generation, there will be no change in speed of
the generating unit, and
Hence the frequency

f  0thus implies the actual system frequency

equals the reference frequency and the demand is
well balanced by generation

Action: In this case, no changes will need to be

effected in the generation
2.3.2 Case 2: Demand less than generation, that is,
 Ifthe demand is significantly less than generation ,
the generating unit will tend to increase in speed

Subsequently, the frequency will also tend to

increase

A positive error frequency signal thus

indicates a reduction in demand

Action: corrective measure involves a reduction in

the generator output , i.e., closing of the steam
valve (or gate).
2.3.3 Case 3: Demand exceeds generation,
that is, PD  PG  f  f ref and f  0
If the demand is significantly more than
generation , the generating unit will tend to
decrease in speed

Subsequently, the frequency will also tend to

decrease

A negative error frequency signal thus

indicates an increase in demand over generation.

Actions: 3 corrective measures are possible

2.3.3 Case 3: Demand exceeds
generation (2)Corrective actions
1. Increase in generator output, i.e.,
opening steam valve or gate

2. Importation of power from

neighbouring country

3. Load shedding (as last resort)

2.4 Turbine-Governor Control
System for Real Load Regulation
 Let an increase in turbine mechanical power
result from an increase in the reference power
setting, and a decrease in frequency
 For small and slow (static or steady-state)
increments, we can write
 (Eqn 1)

R is referred to as regulation or droop constant

 Two (2) network cases may be considered

2.4.1 Case 1: Infinite network,
An infinite network is a network whose
frequency is independent of changes in
power output of individual generator

In other words,

The turbine-governor control Eqn reduces

to
2.4.1 Example 1- Infinite network
A 100 MW generator is operated into an
infinite network. How would you make this
generator increase its turbine power by 5 MW?
Solution 1:
Since the network is infinite,

Thus from the Eqn 1,

Implication:Simply give a raise signal of 5

MW to the speed-changer motor
2.4.2 Case 2: Finite network,
A finite network is one whose frequency
is variable.

However, the speed-changer setting is

kept constant, that is,

The turbine-governor control Eqn 1

reduces to
2.4.2 Example 2- Finite network
 Consider the 100 MW generator of Example 1. It
has a regulation parameter of 4% (0.04 pu). By
how much will the turbine power change, if the
frequency drops by 0.1 Hz with the reference power
setting unchanged?
 Solution 2
 Reference power setting is unchanged implies that

 Note: R is given in per unit, and must be changed to

actual Hz/MW value, that is,
2.4.2 Example 2- Finite network (2)
Solution 2 (contd)

Substituting,

Hence,

Implication: for a 0.1 Hz frequency drop in a

finite network, the turbine power must increase
by 5 MW
2.4.2 Example 3- Finite network (3)
 Two generators are supplying power to a finite system. Their
power ratings are and . The frequency is
60 Hz and the generator is half-loaded. The system load
increases by 110 MW, and as a result, the frequency drops to
59.5 Hz. What must the individual regulations be, if the two
generators should increase their turbine powers in proportion
to their ratings?
 Solution:
 (a) For a finite system, . Furthermore, generators
should increase their turbine powers in proportion to their
ratings. Thus
2.4.2 Example 3- Finite network (3)
 But
 Solving (*) and (**) simultaneously ,
 Note: the two generators must pick up extra10 MW and
100 MW respectively

 (b) Regulation constant for smaller Unit 1 is

 Expressed in per unit

2.4.2 Example 3- Finite network (4)
 (c)Regulation constant for bigger Unit 2

 Expressed in per unit

Notes:
(i) Expressed as per unit regulation, the regulation figure is
the same for both units
(ii) Generators working in parallel on the same network
ought to have the same per unit regulation, in order to share
load changes in proportion to their size or rating.
ActivePower Management in
Transmission System
2.5 Active Line Power Flow and Its
Control
 Consider the simplified model of a transmission line
(assumed lossless)
 We refer to the known active power flow equation between
two ends of a line, having voltage V1 and V2 and separated
by a reactance X:

 Deductions
 The active power flow depends on the product of the
magnitude of the end-point voltage phasors
 Because the product of the two voltages is always positive,
active power flow will always be positive
 That is, active line power flow will always be from sending-
end to receiving-end
2.5 Active Power Flow and Its
Control (2)
 Deductions (continued)
Real power (or MW) and VAR flows need not be
in the same direction

The maximum transmittable real power flow is

given as

This is called the static stability or thermal limit

of the line

2.5.1 Example 4: Maximum
Permissible Active Power Flow
 Find the maximum transmittable power over a 20-km line
transmitting 1000 MW power at a transmission voltage of 20
kV. Assume the line reactance , and neglect
line resistance.
 Solution 4
 Assuming no change in the sending-end and receiving-end
voltages, the maximum 3-phase transmittable power is

 Notes:
 This value is well below the intended power of 1000 MW to be
transmitted.
 What it means is that one cannot wheel a bulk power of1000
MW through this 20 kV LV line. It would require an HV line
2.6 Increasing the static stability limit
1. Increasing the transmission voltage
 change of transmission voltage will demand
change of line insulators, tower heights,
switchgear, etc
 expensive to undertake

2. Reducing the line reactance through

 installation of another parallel line (right of way
ROW problems, availability of funds?)
 conductor bundling
 series compensation – addition of capacitance in
series with line
 2.7 Active Line Losses & Its Control
 Refer to the deduced active line power loss equation:

 This loss formula reveals the following:

 both real and reactive line power flows contribute to
the real power losses
real line power losses are proportional to the sum of the
squares of the line flows (both real and reactive flows)
Real power losses are inversely proportional to the
voltage magnitude square
There is thus a double reason for the use of high
transmission voltages.
2.8 Reducing active line losses

1. Minimize the line flows P & Q

 P-flow minimization – distributed generation with
use of renewable energy sources (RES) like solar PV
systems, wind plants, mini-hydro plants, etc
 Q-flow minimization – local compensation

2. Increase transmission voltage

3. Reduce line resistance – practically through

reconductoring /use of bigger conductor sizes
ActivePower Management in
Distribution System
2.9 Voltage and frequency
dependency of loads
 Animportant feature characterizing all loads is their
dependency on voltage and frequency.

 During faults and other abnormal situations, the

voltage may vary greatly, resulting in major load
fluctuations.

 Evenminor changes in voltage and frequency can

cause load changes of practical significance.

 Weshall discuss two important load types, namely,

impedance loads and motor loads.
2.9.1 Voltage dependency of
impedance loads
 Lighting, heaters and similar loads fall under the
category of impedance loads.
 It is desired to know by how many percent the real load
will change if the voltage on an impedance load is
changed by a certain percentage.
 Consider the relevant power equations:

 Clearly,the real and reactive loads are proportional to

the square of the voltage magnitude.
2.9.1 Voltage dependency of
impedance loads (2)
For a small voltage change , we have
for the real power

OR, (Eqn 2)

Eqn (2) shows that a small relative change

in voltage results in twice the relative
change in active power.
2.9.1 Voltage dependency of
impedance loads (3)
Example 5
Consider an inductive load of impedance .
By how many percent will the real load
drop if the voltage is reduced by 1%.
Solution 5

Hence a 1% drop in voltage causes a 2%

drop in active load.
2.9.2 Frequency dependency of impedance loads

 The reactance depends on the frequency according to

the relation
 Thus from Eqn (2), we have,

 Or,
2.9.2 Frequency dependency of
impedance loads (2)
 Rearranging the last expression, we obtain

 Noting that,

 The equation reduces to Eqn (3)

 Note:

Eqn (3) indicates that a relative increase in frequency

leads to a relative decrease in active load demand, and
vice versa.
2.9.2 Frequency dependency of
impedance loads (3)-Example 6
 How would a 1% drop in frequency affect the real load
in the previous example, if the load is assumed to have a
power factor of 0.8?
 Solution 6:
 Using the relevant eqn,

 Fora power factor, then

 Thus

 Hence 1% reduction in frequency results in a 0.72%

increase in load.
2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor
loads
 Induction motor load dominates the group of motor
loads.
 Its dependence upon voltage and frequency is
somewhat more complicated to analyse.
 We demonstrate it better with an Example 7.

 A 480 V 3-phase induction motor powers a

compressor whose torque is assumed to be speed-
independent. The motor runs at an initial speed
corresponding to a per-unit slip of . How will
the motor load change, if the voltage drops by 1%?
2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor
loads – Solution 7
 The equivalent per-phase circuit of the induction motor
is shown below, neglecting the magnetizing impedance.
2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor
loads – Solution 7 (2)
 The motor torque is

 For a constant power output, the relationship between

different slips for different voltages is given by the
equation

 From the data,

 The new slip is

 The active power drawn from the network equals


2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor
loads – Solution 7 (3)
 The stator current is obtained as

 Using the numerical values given for the equivalent

circuit, we obtain

 NOTES:
 (i)The 1% voltage drop causes a 0.84% current rise, quite a
typical situation in the case of an induction motor.
 Remember the opposite situation in the case of an
impedance load.
2.9.3 Voltage dependency of motor
loads – Solution 7(4)
 Finally, we obtain the following power relationship

 NOTES:
 (i) The motor will reduce its power drain by only
(0.002x100%)=0.2% for a 1% voltage drop. This is the so-
called brownout effect
 (ii)Compare the 2% power reduction in the case of an
impedance load.
 (iii) Impedance loads thus give a better power reduction than
motor loads under such conditions.
2.10 Exercises
1) Discuss, with the aid of a schematic diagram, how the control of the
power system frequency is achieved by regulation of the generator output.
2). State any FOUR aims of power system operation.
3). Explain the relevance of series and shunt compensations in a power
system
4). Two generators rated and are supplying power to
a 50 Hz finite system. If the system load increases by 180 MW, resulting
in a drop in frequency to 49.85 Hz, and the two generators should
increase their turbine powers in proportion to their ratings, determine the
respective
(i) generations of the two machines to accommodate the load increase.
(ii) regulation constants of the machines.
5). Using (don’t deduce) the appropriate equations, explain how
i. transmission capacity of a line can be increased
ii. losses in a line can be reduced
End of Section 2