E2 Scientific Method

Scientific Method in
Research
Lecture 2
Associate Professor Dr Ting Su Hie
Faculty of Language and Communication,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
([email protected])
(60-82-581781)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After this lecture, you should be able:
1.to train your mind to think using the

Scientific Method; and
2.to explain the characteristics of the
Scientific Method.
Revision
Deductive reasoning: From general statement to a
specific conclusion.
•All live mammals breathe.
•This cow is a live mammal.
•Therefore, this cow breathes.
Inductive reasoning: From specific observations

to a conclusion.
•All swans which have been observed are white in
colour.
•Therefore one can conclude that all swans are
white.
What is research?
First Definition of Research
“Research is a procedure by which we attempt to
find systematically, and with the support of
demonstrable fact, the answer to a question or the
resolution of a problem” (Leedy, 1989, p. 5).
Second Definition focuses on the Thinking

Research is a combination of both experience and
reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful
approach to the discovery of truth (Cohen & Manion,
1994, p. 8).
A. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A. Scientific Method
Actually scientists combine deductive

and inductive reasoning.
The scientific method is the foundation

of modern scientific research, in both
science and arts.
Scientific method
= Sensory and mental
Research question
Conduct
study
Theory comes from repeated

systematic research with consistent
results. Theories can be challenged.
Figure 1. The scientific method showing the process of research
Scientific method - Observation
• You observe things: You see things (sensory). You think

about things (mental).
• E.g., you notice many students have low English grades.
You come to a conclusion (INductive Reasoning) and ask
a research question: WHY? Why do students have
problems with English?
Scientific method – Deductive reasoning
• You plan a study to answer

the research question (Why
do students have problems
with English?)
What kinds of FACTS can I get to support this main
point/argument?
When I meet students, parents, English teachers and
lecturers, what should I ask them? (Tell me)
Scientific method – Deductive reasoning
• You plan a study to answer the

research question (Why do
students have problems with
English?)
In the sciences, it is common to make hypothesis (state expected
results based on past findings)
Null hypothesis: There is no difference in the English marks of

students who read many or no English books.
Alternative hypothesis: Students who read many English books
have higher English marks than those who don’t read.
Scientific method – Conduct the study
Alternative hypothesis: Students who read many English books have

higher English marks than those who don’t read.
•Who should we study? How many? Where are they?
•What data should we collect? How many?
•How should we do the study?
Scientific method – Analyse Results
Student A – reads 4 books per month, 80%

Student B – reads 1 book per month, 60%
Student C – reads 5 books per month, 85%
Student D – reads 0 books per month, 40%
Student E – reads 1 page per month, 45%
Scientific method – Make Conclusion
When you analyse the
results, you use inductive
reasoning because you go
through many details to get
the main results.
Think inductively – which hypothesis do the results support?

Null hypothesis: There is no difference in the English marks of students who read many
or no English books.
Alternative hypothesis: Students who read many English books have higher English
marks than those who don’t read.
Scientific method – Repeat in science
= Sensory and mental
Research question
Conduct
study
Science
Theory comes from repeated

systematic research with consistent
results. Theories can be challenged.
Figure 1. The scientific method showing the process of research
Research using the Scientific Method is
self-correcting
Researchers rigorously test the results

obtained, and
methods and results are open to public
scrutiny and criticism.
That’s why we publish papers and others

can refute our results using their own
results (not opinions!)
Scientific method
Refuted: The early theories – the genetic material

was protein. This was refuted when they
discovered DNA. DNA is made of deoxyribonucleic
acid, which is not protein.
Somewhat proven wrong: In the past, mothers

speak their dialect to their children, which is why
we have the term “mother tongue”. But now,
many mothers choose to speak a standard
language to their children, not their own
language/tongue.
B. CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
4 Characteristics of research which uses
the scientific method
(1) Research starts with a question
A questioning mind is necessary for research.

Why, how, when do things happen? What do
events mean? What caused them?
We can also say research starts with a research

problem.
Research question that starts off a
research
Why do some researchers always exaggerate in their writing
and others are careful?
Are metadiscourse markers in political science journal articles

similar or different from those found in other disciplines?
Interactional metadiscourse markers: hedges (In some cases),

boosters (very), attitude markers (surprisingly), engagement
markers (as you can see) and self-mention (I/we).
Nawawi, A., & Ting, S. H. (2021, January 9). Interactional metadiscourse markers in political
science journal articles. Paper presented at The first International Conference on
Government, Education Management and Tourism (ICoGEMT) 2021, Indonesia.
(2) Successful research must have a clear goal
Clear aim and objectives of the study show what will be

done. And ensures the success of the research.
“The study focused on the use of

interactional metadiscourse markers
in political science journal articles.”
(3) Successful research must be carefully planned
Clear method of study based on aim and objectives of the

study
1.What research design? Experiment? Descriptive?
2.Who/what to study?
3.What to use to collect data? (Instrument)
4.How to collect data?
5.How to analyse data?
Interactional Metadiscourse Markers in Political Science Journal Articles
(1) RESEARCH DESIGN
A descriptive research using qualitative

analysis of interactional metadiscourse
markers in political science journal articles.
•Can study the phenomenon in a natural and unchanged

environment (original journal articles).
•Can integrate the qualitative and quantitative methods of
data collection (1st, qualitative analysis, 2nd, report numbers
and patterns of usage).
(2) CORPUS
• Compiled 12 articles from 3 refereed journal

publications, 4 from each journal.
• Journal publication titles {+ description}:

International Journal
International Journal of Public Policy
Journal of Public and International Affairs
• Full length English articles published in 2014-2020.

(3) INSTRUMENT
Hyland’s (2005) Interpersonal metadiscourse model which provides a
functional method in describing how writers use resources to make reference
to the text, themselves and the readers.
This study focuses on interactional resources only.
Interactive Interactional
resources resources
guide the involve the
reader through reader in the
the text
text
development.
(3) INSTRUMENT: Analysis
Framework for the Study
The analysis framework shown in Table X shows the
functions and examples for 5 interactional metadiscourse
markers based on Hyland’s (2005) interpersonal
metadiscourse model.
(4) DATA COLLECTION
PROCEDURES
1. Search political science journals and get the full list.
2. Select 3 political science journals: 1 that is very high in
ranking, 1 low in ranking, and 1 moderate.
3. Find articles on general topics in public policy. Abstract
topics required specialised knowledge to understand
and were not chosen.
4. Select 4 articles from each journal.
5. Retrieve articles from the journal online homepage,
save and print them for analysis.
(5) DATA ANALYSIS
PROCEDURES
1. Use analysis framework based on Hyland (2005).
2. Read the definitions and examples to understand them
100%.
3. Circle boosters, hedges etc on the articles. Write B or H
etc at the right hand side.
4. Check analysis by going through a 2nd or 3rd time.
5. Count how many boosters, hedges etc for each article.
(4) Good research contributes to knowledge
Is it important
to study Gap
whether it rains
in
after people
wash their car?
knowledge
(4) Good research contributes to knowledge
•Researchers must know what other researchers have

already found out already about the topic, and not
repeat their research.
•Researchers must identify what is still NOT understood
about the topic, and form a research question about it.
•Only then, the results will help us understand the topic
better/ increase knowledge in the field.
Scientific Method in Research
•Good researchers must develop the ability to use
deductive and inductive reasoning where appropriate.
•Don’t jump to conclusions.
•Don’t study unimportant topics.
Four Characteristics of Research which uses the Scientific

Method
1.Research starts with a question or research problem.
2.Successful research must have a clear goal.
3.Successful research must be carefully planned.
4.Good research contributes to knowledge.

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Scientific Method in

After this lecture, you should be able:

1.to train your mind to think using the

Inductive reasoning: From specific observations

Second Definition focuses on the Thinking

Actually scientists combine deductive

The scientific method is the foundation

Theory comes from repeated

• You observe things: You see things (sensory). You think

• You plan a study to answer

• You plan a study to answer the

Null hypothesis: There is no difference in the English marks of

Alternative hypothesis: Students who read many English books have

Student A – reads 4 books per month, 80%

Think inductively – which hypothesis do the results support?

Theory comes from repeated

Researchers rigorously test the results

That’s why we publish papers and others

Refuted: The early theories – the genetic material

Somewhat proven wrong: In the past, mothers

A questioning mind is necessary for research.

We can also say research starts with a research

Are metadiscourse markers in political science journal articles

Interactional metadiscourse markers: hedges (In some cases),

Clear aim and objectives of the study show what will be

“The study focused on the use of

Clear method of study based on aim and objectives of the

(1) RESEARCH DESIGN

A descriptive research using qualitative

•Can study the phenomenon in a natural and unchanged

• Compiled 12 articles from 3 refereed journal

• Journal publication titles {+ description}:

• Full length English articles published in 2014-2020.

This study focuses on interactional resources only.

•Researchers must know what other researchers have

Four Characteristics of Research which uses the Scientific

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