States of Consciousness

Consciousness
Consciousness:
The process underlying
the mental model we
create of the world of
which we are aware;
allows us to retrieve a
fact, an idea, an emotion,
or a memory and
combine it with critical
thinking.
The Conscious Mind
The conscious mind can take on a variety of roles, but
it must focus sequentially on one thing and then
another. Multi-tasking is not all it is cracked up to be.

• Are the hands-free device laws we

see in society a good thing?
Car Accidents & Texting
Why are people twice as likely to have car accidents
when texting versus those who drive while drunk?
TEXTING accidents are related to the fact that people
think driving can be a completely automatic process,
but they need to use controlled processing to respond.
However, their controlled processing is focused on
texting, so their attention does not shift.
The Non-Conscious Process
The non-conscious mind is great at multitasking.
Where the conscious mind has the ability to focus on
just one task, the non-conscious mind has no such
restrictions.

The conscious mind has to process things serially,

while the non-conscious mind can handle many
streams of information in parallel.
 Walking, chewing gum and breathing
 Mental Imagery
We can use our conscious mind to “zoom in” on an
image.

Lets try it….

Close your eyes.

Picture a cat.
 The Results
Is the cat black? Does it have a long tail?
Does it have a collar on? Does it have short
hair? Does it have white paws?

Psychologists have found that the smaller

the detail, the longer people take to
respond.
What Consciousness Does
Our consciousness has 3 main functions:

1. Consciousness restricts our attention.

2. It keeps our brain from being overwhelmed by

stimulation by processing things serially and
limiting what we notice and think about.

3. Consciousness provides us with a mental “meeting

place” where sensation combines with memory,
emotions and motives.
Levels of the Non-conscious Mind
There are two levels of the non-conscious mind:
preconscious and unconscious.

Preconscious memories: Information that is not

currently in consciousness, but can be recalled voluntarily.

Unconscious: Cognition (thought) without awareness.

 -Involves levels of brain systems that range from autopilot to those which
can have subtle influences on consciousness and behavior.
Freud’s View of Consciousness
According to Freud, there are three levels of consciousness:
 Conscious: this is the part of the mind that holds what you’re
aware of. You can verbalize about your conscious experience and
you can think about it in a logical fashion.

 Preconscious: ordinary memory. So although things stored here

aren’t in the conscious, they can be readily brought into conscious.

 Unconscious: Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly
accessible to awareness.
 A dump box for urges, feelings and ideas that are tied to anxiety, conflict and
pain.
 These feelings and thoughts have not disappeared and are exerting influence
on our actions and our conscious awareness
Freud’s Views
Freud said that the unconscious mind had an
especially important role in our relationships.

He said we chose mates who are, on an unconscious

level, just substitutes for our fathers and mothers.
Daydreaming
Daydreaming: A common (and quite normal) variation of
consciousness in which attention shifts to memories,
expectations, desires or fantasies and away from the
immediate situation.
 Most people daydream everyday, however, it is much more
common amongst younger adults.
 Daydreams serve valuable functions such as planning and

problem solving.

Brain scans of a
wondering mind
The White Bear Experiment
Speak continuously for one minute
about anything that comes to your
mind. DO NOT think about a white
bear, however.
 Results
This experiment was done with college students in the
USA. The vast majority of them could not speak for a
minute without talking about the white bear? Why?

Trying to suppress a thought, or keep it out of your mind

can result in an obsession over the very thought you seek to
escape. Yet, when you do not try to sensor your thoughts,
but let them wonder, unwanted and unpleasant thoughts
often become less prominent.
 3 Main Biological Rhythms
Circadian Rhythms: Occur once during a 24
hour period.
 Ex. The sleep-wake cycle.

Ultradian Rhythms: Occur more than once

a day.
 Ex. The various stages of sleep each night.

Infradian Rhythms: Occur once a month or

a season.
 Ex. Bears hibernating.
 Why We Sleep
Originally psychologists thought we slept because our
neurons disconnected from each other causing us to
simply “drift off.”

In reality, we do not have complete answers as to what

causes us to sleep.
 What We Do Know
We do know that the hypothalamus is the control center for
our 24 hour rhythm of sleep.

The hypothalamus senses changes in light and dark and

sends neurological messages to your brain and body that put
you to sleep.

One of these neurological transmitters is melatonin, a

hormone connected to the wake-sleep cycles that builds up
while we sleep.
Sleep and Dreams
 Measuring sleep activity
 Stages of Sleep
The sleep-wake cycle itself is circadian but we have
ultradian cycles during our night’s sleep.

As you relax and try to go to sleep, your brain waves cycle
more and more slowly.

Once you fall asleep, you will go through 4 stages of

relatively quiet sleep before you go to the more active
dreaming stage.
Brain Waves and Sleep Stages
 Alpha Waves
 slow waves of a relaxed,
awake brain
 Delta Waves
 large, slow waves of
deep sleep
 Hallucinations
 false sensory
experiences
 Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep
Awake
Sleep
stages
1

3
REM
4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hours of sleep
Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep
Minutes
of Decreasing
25 Stage 4
Stage 4
and
REM 20

15 Increasing
REM
10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Hours of sleep
Stage 1
You will not know the exact moment when you enter Stage
1 of sleep.

It lasts only 5-10 minutes.

You are easily awaken from this stage and will probably
insist that you were never asleep.

You may report dreamlike sensations of falling upon being

waken up.
Stage 2
Your brain waves slow down even more.

Little brain wave-bursts called spindles are common during

this stage.

The first time you enter this stage it will last about 20
minutes.

Over the course of the night, you will spend ½ of your sleep
in this stage.
Stages 3 and 4
After about 30 minutes of sleep, your brainwaves slow
down a lot.

Your brainwave cycles are less than 1 cycle per second,

compared to 15 cycles per second when you first fall asleep.

This stage is called slow-wave sleep or delta sleep.

The first time you are in these rejuvenation stages, it will

last about 30 minutes.
REM Sleep
The previous 4 stages have been part of N-rem, or
non-rapid-eye-movement sleep.

After you reach Stage 4, your brain waves will begin to

pick up a little more speed and strength. You will move
back up through Stages 3, 2, and 1 and then enter your
first period of Rem Sleep.
 REM Sleep
 REM sleep: A reoccurring sleep stage during which
vivid dreams commonly occur.

It is also called paradoxical sleep because the muscles of

the body are relaxed, but the other body systems are
active.

Notice the increased activity of the

brain, represented by the red areas
 Sleep Debt
Most adults need to sleep about 8 hours, or a little bit
more, to feel good and function efficiently. However, most
Americans get significantly less than 8 hours of sleep.

Often times, we attribute afternoon drowsiness to a big

lunch-really the result of sleep-debt.
 Similarly, people say they fall asleep when they are bored. In
reality, restlessness is the normal response to boredom, not
sleepiness.
Sleep Deprivation
 Effects of Sleep Loss
 fatigue
 impaired concentration
 depressed immune
system
 greater vulnerability to
accidents
 Sleep Deprivation
Less sleep, More sleep,
Accident more accidents fewer accidents
frequency
2,800

2,700 4,200

2,600 4000

2,500 3,800

2,400 3,600
Spring time change Fall time change
(hour sleep loss) (hour sleep gained)
Monday before time change Monday after time change
Dreaming
Freud had many prominent thoughts on dreaming, as
well as the non-conscious mind.

Freud said dreaming had two main functions: to guard

sleep and serve as a source for wish fulfillment.
What We Dream
 Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams
have negative emotional content.

 Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about

failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck
with misfortune.

 Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual

dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10;
and in women 1 in 30.

35
Truth About Dreams
Despite his theories there is no solid evidence to support
Freud’s interpretations of latent dream content.

Dreams, do however, vary by age, gender and culture.

Children are more likely to dream about animals that are large
and threatening, while adults dream more about pets.

Women are more likely to dream about men and women; men
are more likely to dream about men.
Culture and Dreams
Many studies have supported the theory that culture plays
a large role in dream content.
 Ghana: Attacking cows
 Americans: Public nakedness
 Mexican-Americans: Death

There is strong support for the idea that dreams reflect life
events that are important to the dreamer.
Dreams
Why do you have dreams that seem random?

Typically the first dream connects with events from the

previous day. Later dreams tend to build on a theme in the
previous dream.

Often times, the final dream is remembered most vividly,

but has very little to do with the previous days events, or
events that lay ahead.
Other Theories
Not everyone believes that dreams have meaning and relate
to the day’s events.

Activation-synthesis theory says that dreams result when

the sleeping brain tries to make sense of its own
spontaneous bursts of activity.
 A dream, then, is the brain’s way of making sense out of
nonsense.
Modern Theories
Information Processing: An important memory-related
function of sorting and shifting through the day’s
experiences.

Physiological function: Neural activity during Rem sleep

which provides necessary brain stimulation and growth.

Activation-synthesis: Our brain’s attempt to make sense of

random neural firings in various parts of our brain.

Cognitive Theory: Dream are the embodiment of thoughts.

 a dream is a pictorial representation of the dreamer's conceptions.
Summary of Dream Theories
 Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: Recurring problems fall or staying asleep.

There are lots of “remedies” which may actually worsen the problem.
Sleeping pills: addicting, prevent Rem sleep
Alcohol: Prevents Rem Sleep
Sleep Disorders
Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder characterized by a
temporary stoppage in breathing forcing the person to
wake up.
 Roughly 4 % of Americans have sleep apnea
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by
uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Somnambulism: Sleepwalking. The sleepwalker can walk,

talk and see, but will have little or no memory of the event
when they wake up.

Night Terrors: A sleep related problem characterized by
high alertness and an appearance of being terrified.

Bruxism: Teeth grinding.

Myoclonus: Sudden movement or flinch of a body part

occurring in Stage 1 or 2.
 Hypnosis
One of the more intriguing aspects of consciousness is
hypnosis. The reality of hypnosis is far less intriguing
than the anecdotal perception of what many of us have
seen or heard.
 Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a social interaction in which one person (the
hypnotist) suggests to another person (the subject) that
certain perceptions, cognitions or behaviors will
spontaneously occur.

Does it work?
 To a degree everyone is suggestible
 20% are highly suggestible

 The real power of hypnosis is not in the hypnotist, but in the

subject’s own openness to suggestion.
Can Hypnosis Enhance Memory?
Although most people believe lost memories
can be retrieved through hypnosis,
something called age regression, 60 years
of dispute such claims.

In reality, “hypnotically refreshed” memories

often combine fact with fiction as the
hypnotist asks leading questions like “Did
you hear loud noises?”
 Banned as evidence in America, Australian
and England
Can Hypnosis Enhance Memory?
“Hypnosis is not a psychological truth serum
and to regard it as such has been a source of
considerable mischief.”
 –Researcher Kenneth Bowers

Thousands of examples of memories created

under hypnosis come from people who
reported seeing UFOs.
 Studies reveal that most reposts of UFOs have come
from people predisposed to believe in aliens, are
highly hypnotizable, and have undergone hypnosis
Can Hypnosis Make People Act
Against Their Will?
The short answer is no, not anymore than an
authoritative figure can make someone who is not
hypnotized act against their will.
 “The overt behaviors of hypnotic subjects are well within
normal limits,” (Spanos 1982).

• We will see the power of the

authoritative figure again when we
study social psychology in chapter
14.
Can Hypnosis Make People Act
Against Their Will?
Hypnotized people don’t do anything that
unhypnotized people can’t also be convinced to do.

Studies show that an authoritative person in a

legitimate context can induce people-hypnotized or
not-to perform some unlikely acts.
Can Hypnosis be Therapeutic?
The short answer is yes….sometimes, kind of.
Posthypnotic suggestions, suggestions made during
hypnosis, have helped alleviate headaches, asthma and
stress-related skin disorders.

In other cases, clients whose therapy was supplemented

with hypnosis showed greater improvement 70% of other
patients.
 Especially helpful with obesity
 No help for smoking, drinking, drugs
 No difference when patients were given the same positive
reinforcement without hypnosis
Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain?
Hypnosis can actually alleviate pain!
This happens because of disassociation
A split between levels of consciousness, hypnosis
disassociates the physical stimulus of pain from the
emotional suffering that defines our experience of pain
 Called hypnotic analgesia

Selective attention we get caught up in the moment and

do not feel the pain until later
 Essentially distracting people from feeling pain
Can Hypnosis Alleviate Pain?
PET scans show that hypnosis reduces brain activity in a
region that processes painful stimuli, but not in the sensory
cortex that receives raw sensory input (Rainville 1997)
 Hypnosis does not block sensory input, but it MAY block our
attention to those stimuli.

PET Scans

Hypnos: Greek
god of sleep
An Altered State of Consciousness?
We know hypnosis involves a heightened state of
suggestibility, but some suggest it is more of a social
phenomenon.
 Some believe the hypnotic phenomenon is simply the
workings of normal consciousness and the power of social
influence-social influence theory
 Not suggesting anyone is faking, but rather they get caught up in
the role/moment. The more they trust the hypnotist, and feel
motivated to demonstrate those behaviors, the more they allow
that person to direct their attention
A Diverted Consciousness?
While most agree that hypnosis involves normal social and
cognitive processes, some think it is more than “acting.”
The divided-consciousness theory is controversial, but
suggests we can run on autopilot for well rehearsed tasks,
while consciously working on another task.
 One thing we know for sure, we process a lot of information
outside of our conscious awareness…much of our behavior
occurs on autopilot.
Explaining Hypnosis
Drugs and Consciousness
 Psychoactive Drug
 A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

 Physical Dependence
 Physiological need for a drug
 Marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

 Psychological Dependence
 A psychological need to use a drug
 For example, to relieve negative emotions
 Dependence and Addiction
Big
effect  Tolerance
Response to  Diminishing effect with
Drug
effect
first exposure regular use
 The body begins to stop
producing these
After repeated chemicals naturally
exposure, more
drug is needed  Withdrawal
to produce  Discomfort and distress
same effect
Little
that follow discontinued
effect use
Small Large
Drug dose
Psychoactive Drugs
 Depressants
 Drugs that reduce neural activity
 Slow body functions
 alcohol, barbiturates, opiates
 Stimulants
 Drugs that excite neural activity
 Speed up body functions
 caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine
 Hallucinogens
 Psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort
perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of
sensory input
 LSD
Effects of Drugs
Research tells us that the effects of drugs depends not just
on its biological effects, but also on the psychology of the
user’s expectations (Ward, 1994).

If one culture assumes that a particular drug produces

euphoria and another does not, each culture may find its
expectations fulfilled.

• Marijuana seems to be a good

example of this, and is currently at
the center of national debates as to
its value/danger.
Alcoholism
Alcoholism
The most serious drug problem in the USA.
Nearly 80% of all high school seniors have consumed alcohol
at some point in life, nearly 5% of graduating seniors drink
alcohol daily.
Psychological Application: alcohol slows down inhibitions,
impairs judgment, perceptions/sensations become distorted,
behavior becomes obnoxious. Can lead to unconsciousness,
and even coma or death.
Alcohol can produce physiological and psychological
dependence.
Alcoholism itself may develop from both genetic and
environmental factors.
Person’s risk of becoming an alcoholic is 3-4 times greater if a
member of the family is an alcoholic.
Four Stages of Alcoholism
Stage #1: Individual drinks and relaxation encourages
more drinking.
Stage #2: Secret drinking occurs, with blackouts and no
memory of drinking.
Stage #3: Rationalization to justify the drinking.
thinking & compulsive drinking.
Stage #4: Impaired daily.
* In most psychological and medical circles, the
“disease model” of alcoholism is no longer
favored.
Psychoactive Drugs-Depressants
 Barbiturates
 Drugs that depress the activity of the central
nervous system, reducing anxiety but
impairing memory and judgment

 Opiates
 Opium and its derivatives (morphine and
heroin)
 Opiates depress neural activity, temporarily
lessening pain and anxiety
Psychoactive Drugs-
Stimulants
 Amphetamines
 Drugs that stimulate neural activity,
causing speeded-up body functions and
associated energy and mood changes
 Results in short term energy and euphoria
 Eventually reduces baseline dopamine
level, leaving user permanently depressed
 Cocaine
Stimulants
Images of Addiction
Images of Addiction
Image of Addiction
Drug Addiction
One of the most major psychological problems in America.
Millions of Americans depend heavily in drugs—they hurt
themselves physically, socially & psychologically.
Abuse of drugs involves psychological dependence.
Users come to depend so much on the feeling of well-being
that they get from the drug they feel compelled to continue
using it.
People can become psychologically dependent on a wide
variety of drugs—alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine,
marijuana, amphetamines, etc.
Cocaine Euphoria and Crash

Neurotransmitters carry a The sending neuron reabsorbs By binding to the sites that normally reabsorb
message from a sending the excess neurotransmitters neurotransmitters, cocaine blocks the reuptake
neuron across a synapse to molecules, a process called of dopamine norepinephrine, and serotonin. The
receptor sites on a receiving reuptake extra neurotransmitters therefore remain in the
neuron synapse, intensifying their normal mood.
Psychoactive Drugs-Hallucinogens
 Ecstasy (MDMA)
 Synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen
 Both short-term and long-term health risks
 LSD
 Lysergic acid diethylamide
 A powerful hallucinogenic drug
 Also known as acid
 THC
 The major active ingredient in marijuana
 Triggers a variety of effects, including mild
hallucinations