SOLID STATE DRIVES

ELEE0003

MR. GODFREY PATRICE

Number of Lectures Hours: 45Hrs
Assignment’s: 2 (Submitted on 5th week and 11th week)

Requirements: 85% attendance

Assignments 1 Marks Calculation: ( )
Text Books
 Gopal K Dubey, 2011, Fundamentals of Electric Drive, 2nd Edition, Narosa Publishing house, New Delhi.
 Pillai S.K, 2014, A First course on Electrical Drives, 3rd Print, Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi.
 Vedam Subramanyam, 2015, Thyristor Control of Electrical Drives, 3rd Edition, Mc Graw Hill Education
(India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
 John Hindmarsh and Alasdain Renfrew, 2012, Electrical Machines and Drives System, Elsevier.
 Shaahin Felizadeh, 2013, Electric Machines and Drives, CRC Press (Taylor and Francis Group).

Reference Books
• Sivanagaraju S, Balasubba Reddy M and Mallikarjuna Prasad A, 2013, Power Semiconductor Drives, 5 th
Edition, PHI, New Delhi.
• Bimal K Bose, 2010, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi.
• Theodore Wildi, 2015, Electrical Machines Drives and Power Systems,6th Edition, Pearson Education,
New Delhi.
• De N.K. And Sen P.K, 2012, Electric drives, PHI, New Delhi.
• Gnanavadivel, 2010, Text Book of Solid-State Drives, Anuradha Publications, Chennai.
 Unit I: Classification of Electric Drives

Electric Drives-Selection of motor power rating – Thermal model of

motor for heating and cooling - Classes of duty cycle- Determination
of motor rating - Drive classifications – Closed loop control of
electric drives - Modes of operation - Speed control.
 Electric Drives
Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic
applications like transportation systems, fan, pumps, rolling mills , paper
machines, washing machines etc. System employed for motion control
are called drives and may employ any of the prime mover such as diesel
or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic
motors, and electric motors for supplying mechanical energy for motion
control. Drives employing electrical motors are called electrical drives
 Drive:
A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and
mechanical Working load is called a drive.
 Electric drive:
An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for
converting electrical energy to mechanical energy to impart motion to
different machines and mechanisms for various kinds of process control.
 BASIC COMPONENT (or) ELEMENTS OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
1. Load: usually a machinery to accomplish a given task. E.g.-fans,
pumps, washing machine etc.
2. Power modulator: modulators (adjust or converter) power flow
from the source to the motion
3. Motor: actual energy converting machine (electrical to
mechanical)
4. Source: energy requirement for the operation the system.
5. Control: adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal
mode.
Power Modulator performs one or more of the following functions.
I. Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a
manner that motor is imparted speed-torque characteristics
required by the load
II. During transient operations such as starting, breaking and speed
reversal, it restricts source and motor currents within permissible
values; excessive current drawn from source may overload it or
may cause a voltage dip
III. Convert electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the
motor
IV. Selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e. motoring or
braking
 Based on the above functions; power modulators can be classified as:-
 Converters
 Switching circuits
 Variable impedance
 Converters
They provide adjustable voltage/current/frequency to control
speed, torque output power of the motor.
 The various types of converters are;
 AC to DC rectifiers
 DC to DC choppers
 AC to AC choppers
 AC to AC –AC voltage controllers (voltage level is controlled)
 Cycloconverter (Frequency is controlled)
 DC to AC inverters
Switching circuits
Switching circuits are needed to achieve any one of the following.
 Changing motor connection to change its quadrant of operation.
 Changing motor circuits parameters in discrete steps for automatic
starting and braking control.
 For operating motors and drives according to a predetermine sequence
 To provide inter locking to preventing maloperation
 Disconnect under up normal condition

E.g.: electromagnetic contactors, PLC in sequencing and inter

locking operation, solid state relays etc.
 Variable impedance
 Variable resisters are commonly used for AC and DC drives
and also needed for dynamic braking of drives
 Semiconductors switch in parallel with a fixed resistance is
used where stepless variation is needed. inductors employed to
limit starting current of ac motors.
 Advantages of Electrical Drives
 They have flexible control characteristics
 They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power
 Electric motors have high efficiency, low/no load losses and considerable
short time overloading capability.
 They are adaptable to almost any operating condition such as explosive or
radioactive environments, submerged in liquids, vertical mounting and so on.
 Do not pollute the environment
 Can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane
 Unlike other prime movers, there is no need to refuel or warm-up the motor
 They are powered by electrical energy which has a number of advantages
over other forms of energy
 Selection of motor power rating
The power rating of a motor for a specific application must be carefully
chosen to achieve economy with reliability.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

i. Nature of electric supply

 Whether AC or DC supply is to be used for supply
ii. Nature of the drive
 Whether the particular motor is going to drive individual machine or a group of machines
iii. Capital and running cost
iv. Maintenance requirement
v. Space ad weight restrictions
vi. Environment and location
vii. Nature of load
 Whether the load requires light or heavy starting torque
 Whether load torque increases with speed remain constant
 Whether the load has heavy inertia which may require longer straight time
viii. Electrical characteristics of motor
 Starting characteristics,
 running characteristics,
 speed control and
 Braking characteristics
ix. Size, rating and duty cycle of motors
 Whether the motor is going to the operator for a short time or whether it has to run continuously
intermittently or on a variable load cycle
x. Mechanical considerations
 Type of enclosures, type of bearings, transmission of drive and Noise level.
Due to practical difficulties, it may not possible to satisfy all the above
considerations.
In such circumstances, it is the experience and knowledge background
which plays a vital role in the selection of the suitable drive.
 The following points must be given utmost important for the selection of
motor. The factors are:
 Nature of the mechanical load driven
 Matching of the speed torque characteristics of the motor with that of the load
 Starting conditions of the load.
 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling
An accurate prediction of heat flow and temperature rise inside an
electrical motor is very difficult to complex geometrical shapes and
use of heterogeneous materials.
 Assumptions made:

i. The machine is considered to be a homogeneous body having a

uniform temperature gradient. All the points at which heat
generated have the same temperature. All the points at which
heat is dissipated are also at same temperature.
ii. Heat dissipation taking place is proportional to the difference of
temperature of the body and surrounding medium. No heat is
radiated.
iii. The rate of dissipation of heat is constant at all temperatures.
 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling
Assume that a machine attains a temperature rise after the lapse of time t
seconds.
In an element of time “dt” a small temperature rise “d” takes place.
Then,
Heat developed = p.dt
Heat Stored = Gh.d
Heat dissipated = Sλ.dt

Therefore,
Total heat developed = heat stored + heat dissipated
Gh.d + Sλ.dt = p.dt

 This is a differential equation and solution of this equation is

 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling
This is a differential equation and solution of this equation is

Where k is a constant of integration determined by initial conditions.

Let the initial temperature rise to be zero at t=0.
Then,
0=

Hence, …………………………………(1)
When t = , , the final steady temperature rise.
In equation (1) above represent = ………………… (2)
 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling
Equation (1) can be written as
………………… (3)
Where is called as heating time constant and it has the dimensions of
time.
Heating time constant
Heating time constant is defined as the time taken by the machine to
attain 0.623 of its final steady temperature rise.
When t = ,

 The heating time constant of the machine is the index of time taken by
the machine to attain its final steady temperature rise.
 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling
 We know that = therefore, the time constant is inversely
proportional to has a larger value for ventilated machines and thus
the value of their heating time constant is small.
The value of heating time constant is larger for poorly ventilated
machines with large or totally enclosed machines, the heating time
constant may reach several hours or even days.
 When a hot body is cooling due to reduction of the losses
developed in it, the temperature time curve is again an
exponential function.
 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling

where,
𝜃f – final temperature drop (the temperature at which
whatever heat is generated is dissipated)
𝜆’ − rate of dissipation while cooling
𝜃i − temperature rise above ambient in the body at time t=0
𝜏’ − cooling time constant =
 Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling
If motor where disconnected from supply during cooling, there would
be no losses taking place and hence, final temperature reached will
be the ambient temperature.
 Therefore, 𝜃f = 0 and hence equation (4) becomes;

Cooling time constant

At t = 𝜏’, 𝜃 =0.368𝜃i
Cooling time constant is, therefore, defined as the time required
cooling the machine down to 0.368 times the initial temperature rise
above ambient temperature.
Thermal model of motor for heating and cooling

Heating and cooling time curves

 Class of Motor Duty
IS: 4722-1968 categorises various load time variations encountered
into eight standard classes of duty:
i. continuous duty
ii. short time duty
iii. intermittent periodic duty
iv. intermittent periodic duty with starting
v. intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking
vi. continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
vii. continuous duty with starting & braking
viii. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
 Class of Motor Duty
1. continuous duty

It denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque for a duration

long enough for the motor temperature to reach steady-state value. This
duty is characterised by a constant motor loss. Paper mill drives,
compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some examples
of continuous duty.
 Class of Motor Duty
2. short time duty
In this, time of drive operation is
considerably less than the heating time
constant and machine is allowed to cool
off to ambinent temperature before the
motor is required to operate again. In this
operation, the machine can be
overloaded until temperature at the end of
loading time reaches the permissible limit.
Some examples are: crane drives, drives
for household appliances, turning bridges,
sluice-gate drives, valve drives, and many
machine tool drives for position control.
 Class of Motor Duty
3. intermittent periodic duty
It consists of periodic duty cycles, each
consisting of a period of running at a
constant load and a rest period. Neither
the duration of running period is sufficient
to raise the temperature to a steady-state
value, nor the rest period is long enough
for the machine to cool off to ambient
temperature. In this Classes of Motor
Duty in Electrical Drives, heating of
machine during starting and braking
operations is negligible. Some examples
are pressing, cutting and drilling machine
drives.
 Class of Motor Duty
4. intermittent periodic duty with starting
This is intermittent periodic duty where heat
losses during starting cannot be ignored.
Thus, it consists of a period of starting, a
period of operation at a constant load and a
rest period; with operating and rest periods,
being too short for the respective steady-
state temperatures to be attained.
In this duty, heating of machine during
braking is considered to be negligible,
because mechanical brakes are used for
stopping or motor is allowed to stop due to its
own friction. Few examples are metal cutting
and drilling tool drives, drives for fork lift
trucks, mine hoist etc.
 Class of Motor Duty
5. intermittent periodic duty with starting & breaking
This is the intermittent periodic duty where
heat losses during starting and braking
cannot be ignored. Thus, it consists of a
period of starting, a period of operation with a
constant load, a braking period with electrical
braking and a rest period; with operating and
rest periods being too short for the respective
steady state temperatures to be attained.
Billet mill drive, manipulator drive, ingot
buggy drive, schrewdown mechanism of
blooming mill, several machine tool drives,
drives for electric suburban trains and mine
hoist are some examples of this duty.
 Class of Motor Duty
6. Continuous Duty with Intermittent Periodic Loading:
It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a
constant load and a period of running at no load, with normal voltage across the
excitation winding. Again the load period and no load period being too short for
the respective temperatures to be attained. This Classes of Motor Duty in
Electrical Drives is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by the
fact that a period of running at a constant load is followed by a period of running
at no load instead of rest. Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine
drives are the examples.
7. Continuous Duty with Starting and Braking:
Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of starting, a period of
running at a constant load and a period of electrical braking; there is no period
of rest. The main drive of a blooming mill is an example.
 Class of Motor Duty
8. Continuous Duty with Periodic Speed Changes:
Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of running at one load and
speed, and another period of running at different speed and load; again both
operating periods are too short for respective steady-state temperatures to be
attained. Further there is no period of rest.
 Determination of Motor Rating
From the point of view of calculation of motor rating various
duty cycles discussed earlier can be broadly classified as:
a) Continuous duty
b) Fluctuating loads
c) Short-time and intermittent duty
 Speed Control and Drive Classification
Drivers where the driving motor runs at a nearly fixed speed are known
as Constant Speed or Single Speed Drives.
Multi-speed drives are those which operate at discrete speed settings.
Drives needing stepless change in speed and multispeed drives are
called Variable Speed Drives.
When a number of motors are fed from a common converter, or when a
load is driven by more than one motor, the drive is termed as multi-
motor drive.
A variable speed drive is called constant torque drive if the drive’s
maximum torque capability does not change with a change in speed
setting. The corresponding mode (or region) of operation is
called Constant Torque Mode.
 Mode of Operation
Three types of Modes of Operation of Electrical Drive:
 Steady-State
 Acceleration including starting
 Deceleration including stopping
 Assignment 1
1.Explain the operation of a closed-loop speed control
scheme and closed-loop torque control scheme. What are
the roles of inner current control and speed control loops?
2.Explain in details Chopper controlled DC drives
3.Why stator voltage control is suitable for speed control of
Induction motors in fan and pump drives?
4. With examples explain in details the determination of
motor rating.
Submission: Friday 27th April
Unit II: Solid State Control of DC Drives:
DC Motor Drives - DC motors and their performance, Braking,
Transient analysis - Separately excited motor with armature and
field control - Ward Leonard drives-Transformer and uncontrolled
rectifier control - Controlled rectifier fed DC drives - Chopper
controlled DC drives – Single, two and four quadrant operations.
 DC Motors and their performance
Dc drives are widely used for applications requiring
adjustable speed, good speed regulation and frequent
starting, breaking and reversing. Eg. rolling mills, cranes,
excavators, textile mills, hoists etc.
Performance curve of dc motors
 DC Motor Braking Methods:
 The term braking comes from the term brake
 The process of reducing speed of any rotating machine

Types of Braking
 Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking
 Plugging or Counter Current Braking
 Regenerative Braking
  The method of reversing the direction of
Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking torque and braking the motor is dynamic
in DC shunt Motor braking
 In this method of braking the motor which is
at a running condition is disconnected from
the source and connected across a
resistance
 When the motor is disconnected from the
source, the rotor keeps rotating due to
inertia and it works as a self–excited
generator
 When the motor works as a generator the
flow of the electric current and torque
reverses
 During braking to maintain the steady torque
sectional resistances are cut out one by one
  In this method the terminals of supply are
Plugging or Counter Current reversed, as a result the generator torque
Braking in DC shunt Motor also reverses which resists the normal
rotation of the motor and as a result the
speed decreases
 During plugging external resistance is also
introduced into the circuit to limit the flowing
current
 The main disadvantage of this method is
that here power is wasted
  Regenerative braking takes place whenever
Regenerative Braking in DC the speed of the motor exceeds the
shunt Motor synchronous speed
 This baking method is called regenerative
braking because here the motor works as
generator and supply the voltage to main
 The main criteria for regenerative braking is
that the rotor has to rotate at a speed higher
than synchronous speed
 The motor will act as a generator and the
direction of electric current flow through the
circuit and direction of the torque reverses and
braking takes place
 The only disadvantage of this type of braking
is that the motor has to run at super
synchronous speed which may damage the
motor mechanically and electrically
Rheostatic or Dynamic Braking
in DC Series Motor
Plugging or Counter Current
Braking in DC series Motor
Regenerative Braking in DC
shunt Motor
 Transient analysis
Starting, braking, reversing speed changing and load changing are
the Transient Analysis of DC Motor which commonly occur in an
industrial drive.
- Interested in knowing how current, torque and speed of the driving
motor change with time when under these transient operations.
- Interested in knowing energy losses, particularly those responsible for
heating of the motor, and time taken for the completion of the Transient
Analysis of DC Motor.
This information is needed by the designer for selecting
suitable rating of the motor, nature and type of its control
equipment and its operation schedule, and types of
protective devices and their settings.
 Transient analysis

Voltage equation of the armature circuit under transient is given by

From the dynamics of motor load system

Further

3
Transient Analysis of Separately Excited
Motor with Armature Control
When field current is kept constant, flux remains constant. Replacing
KeΦ by a constant K in equations above.
4

Differentiating Eq. 5 above

6

Substituting in Eq. 4 for dia/dt from Eq.6 and rearranging terms gives
7
Transient Analysis of Separately Excited
Motor with Armature Control
Differentiating Eq. 4 gives

Substituting in Eq. 5 for dωm/dt from Eq. 8 and rearranging the terms
yields
9

Equations (7) and (9) are second

Where;
order linear differential equations
and can be solved if the
appropriate initial conditions are
known. Once ia vs t relation is
obtained from Eq. (9), T vs t
relation can be calculated.
Transient Analysis of Separately Excited
Motor with Field Control
Let the armature voltage be maintained constant. Now
1

Here Φ is a nonlinear function of if. If saturation is neglected and Φ is

assumed to be proportional to if then (2) and (3) can be written as;

4
Transient Analysis of Separately Excited
Motor with Field Control
5

where K′ = KeKΦ.

 Because of the terms K′ifωm and K′ifia, which involve product of two variables,
(4) and (5) are nonlinear equations, even though the saturation has been
neglected. Thus, this analysis can be carried out using numerical methods of
solving non-linear differential equations such as 4th order Runge-Kutta.

 A special case with the field control arises when the armature current is
maintained constant. Then the dynamics of motor load system is described
by Eq. (5.63) along with the following equation:
Transient Analysis of Separately Excited
Motor with Field Control
6

A special case with the field control arises when the armature current is
maintained constant. Then the dynamics of motor load system is described by
Eq. (6) along with the following equation:

where Ka = KeKΦIa and Ia is the armature current.

From Eq. 7 expression of if and dif/dt can be obtained. Substituting these in Eq.
6 and rearranging the’ terms gives
8

Where;
 Speed Control of DC Motor Drives
The Speed Control of DC Motor Drives can be any of the following
methods:
 Armature voltage control
 Field flux control
 Armature resistance control
 Speed Control of DC Motor Drives
The Speed Control of DC Motor Drives can be any of the following
methods:
 Methods of Armature voltage control
Variable armature voltage for speed control, starting, braking and
reversing of dc motor can be obtained by the following methods;-

When the supply is ac

 Ward Leornard Schemes.
 Transformer with taps and uncontrolled rectifier bridges.
 Static Ward Leornard Schemes or controlled rectifier.

When the supply is dc

 Chopper control
Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control
While the dc motor may be driven at low
speeds, resulting in high torque and
relatively large frame size, generator being
of the same voltage, current and power
ratings as the motor can run at a higher
speed with a view to reduce its cost and
size.

Motor terminal voltage is controlled by

adjusting the field current of the generator.
When field winding voltage is smoothly
varied in either direction, the motor
terminal voltage and therefore, speed can
be steplessly varied from full positive to full
negative.
 Important Features of this drive
 Inherent ability for regenerative braking down to very low motor
speeds. This combined with the variation of armature voltage in
either direction allows efficient operation of drive in all the four
quadrants of speed-torque plane.
Control of generator field is obtained by rheostats when low ratings
are involved and closed-loop control is not desired

For higher power applications or for closed-loop control, the field is

supplied by a power amplifier which may consists of a controlled
rectifier, chopper or transistor amplifier

For reversible drives, a power amplifier capable of supplying

controlled field current in either direction is required
When the field is controlled by a power amplifier capable of
supplying current only in one direction, the minimum speed
obtainable is of the order 0.1 of base speed. This limit on the
minimum value of speed is imposed because of the residual
magnetism of generator field. Due to residual magnetism, even
when field current is zero, enough voltage is generated to make the
motor crawl particularly when the load is light.
To prevent crawling and to reduce the motor speed to zero,
following three methods are employed:
(a) Armature circuit is opened.
(b) A differential field winding on the generator is connected across
the armature terminals. Such a field will oppose the residual flux,
and although it will not reduce the residual voltage to zero, it will
prevent build-up of a large circulating current.
(c) The field winding of generator is connected across armature
terminals such that the current through it produces mmf which
opposes the residual mmf. This type of connection is commonly
known as suicide connection.
 Transformer and Uncontrolled Rectifier
control

Variable voltage for the dc motor control can also be obtained by either
using an auto-transformer or a Armature Voltage Control using
Transformer with tappings (either on primary or on secondary) followed
by an uncontrolled rectifier. A reactor is connected in the armature circuit
to improve armature current waveform.
 Transformer and Uncontrolled Rectifier
control
 Auto-transformer can be employed only for low power ratings.
 For high power applications a transformer with tappings is employed
and tap changing is done with the help of an on load tap changer to
avoid severe voltage transients, produced due to interruption of current
in open circuit transition.
 Transformer and Uncontrolled Rectifier
control
The important features for this schemes are:-
 Output voltage can be changed only in steps.
 Rectifier output voltage waveform does not change as the output voltage in
reduced. A good power factor is maintained at the source and current harmonics
introduced in the supply lines do not increase abnormally, like in the case of a
controlled rectifier when motor voltage is reduced to a small value; and
 Because of the use of diode bridge, circuit is not capable of regeneration.
 Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives
Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives are
used to get variable dc voltage from an ac
source of fixed voltage. Controlled
Rectifier Fed DC Drives are also known as
Static Ward-Leonard drives.
Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier
Control of DC Motor
 Discontinuous Conduction:
In a Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Motor
terminal voltage va, the drive operates in two intervals:
1. Duty interval (α ≤ ωt ≤ β) when motor is connected to the
source and va = vs.
2. Zero current interval (β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α) when i a = 0 and va = E.
Drive operation is described by the following equations:
Solution of Equation above

Where;
Constant K1 can be evaluated subjecting Eq. (5.74) to the initial
condition ia(α) = 0. Substituting value of K1 so obtained in Eq. above
yields.
Since voltage drop across the armature inductance due to dc
component of armature current is zero.

where Va and la are respectively dc components of armature

voltage and current respectively.
Armature current consists of dc component I a and harmonics. When
flux is constant, only dc component produces steady torque

After substituting the boundary limits for β

 Continuous Conduction

After substituting to the speed equation

 Single Phase Half Controlled Rectifier
Control of DC Separately Excited Motor
Discontinuous Conduction
A cycle of motor terminal voltage consists of three intervals
1. Duty interval (α ≤ ωt ≤ π):
2. Freewheeling interval (π ≤ ωt ≤ β): Operation is governed by
the following equation

Solution of (5.87) subject to ia(π) as the initial current yields.

Zero current interval (β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α),
Continuous Conduction
Disadvantages of rectifier controlled drives
-High harmonic
-High ripple content
-Low efficiency
 Chopper
The chopper control method is a popular method of speed control of DC motors.
A chopper is a device that gives variable DC output from applied fixed DC input. It
simply chops fixed DC and generates variable DC.
The chopper supplies fixed DC voltage to the motor. When the chopper is ON, the
motor gets the supply, but when the chopper is OFF, the motor does not get the supply.
Depending upon the ON and OFF time of the chopper, the DC voltage applied to the
motor is Vdc = [Ton / (Ton + Toff)] × Vfixed.
Here Ton / Ttotal is called duty cycle.
As the duty cycle is varied by varying the ON and OFF time of the chopper, the speed
of the motor can be varied.
 Chopper
The chopper converts the fixed DC voltage to variable DC voltage. Self-commutated
devices like MOSFET, IGBT, power transistors, GTO, and IGCT are used for making
choppers because they can be commutated by low power control signal and do not
need a commutation circuit. The most important feature of chopper control is that the
regenerative braking is carried out at very low generating speed when the drive is fed
from a fixed voltage to low DC voltage.

The transistor chopper controlled separately excited DC motor is shown in the figure.
The transistor Tr is operated periodically with period Tr and remains open for a duration
Ton. The waveforms of motor terminal voltage and armature current are shown in the
figure. During on, the motor terminal voltage is V, and the operation of the motor is
described as
Chopper

Time ratio control

Current limit control