STRAIN GAUGES

Overview of Topics

• What is Strain?
• What is Strain Gauge?
• Operation of Strain Gauge
• Grid Patterns
• Strain Gauge Installation
• Wheatstone bridge
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Embedded system and Strain Gauge
• Strain Measurement System
• Applications of a Strain Gauge
 What is Strain ?
• Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force.
More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change in length.
•

• Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although

dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or
mm/mm.
• In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore,
strain is often expressed as microstrain (me), which is e x 10-6.
What is a Strain Gauge ?

• Strain Gauge is a device used to measure deformation (strain) of an

object.
• Strain gauges have been developed for the accurate measurement of
strain
• Fundamentally, all strain gauges are designed to convert mechanical
motion into an electronic signal.
 Schematic View Of Strain Gauge

Insulated backing

Solder Tags -
for
attachment of
wires.
Y
Gauge, wire / foil approx. 0.025 mm thick
• The gauge shown here is primarily sensitive to strain in the X X
direction, as the majority of the wire length is parallel to the X axis.
Strain Gauge

• The name "bonded gauge" is given to strain gauges that are glued to
a larger structure under stress (called the test specimen).
Gage Length

• Gage length is an
important consideration
in strain gage selection
• The gage length is the
dimension of the active
grid as measured inside
the grid end loops.
• The gage length (GGG )
ranges from 0.008 in (0.2
mm) to 4 in (100 mm).
Strain Gauge Operation

• This schematic shows

how the strain gauge
resistance varies with
strain (deformation).
• On applying a force a
change in resistance takes
place.
 
+ -

• Tension causes resistance
increase.
• Compression causes
resistance decrease.
Grid Pattern

(a) (b) (c) (d)

• Uniaxial Gage with a single grid for measuring strain in the grid direction .
• Biaxial Rosettes Gage with two perpendicular grids used to
determine principal strains when their directions are known.
• Three-Element Rosettes Gage with three independent grids in three
directions for ascertaining the principal strains and their directions.
• Shear Patterns Gage having two chevron grids used in half-bridge circuits for
direct indication of shear strains (difference in normal strains) .
Strain Gauge Installation

• The Strain Gauge is bonded to the specimen under test, only after
the following:
• cleaning the surface using a degreaser
• cleaning it again with a conditioner solution (mild acid that accelerates the
cleaning process)
• neutralizing by applying a base (neutralizes any chemical reaction introduced
by the Conditioner)
• finally bonding it with a super glue.
• The Strain Gauge has 2 leads which exhibit variation in resistance
when strain is applied.
The bonded metallic strain gauge

• The metallic strain gauge consists of a very

fine wire or metallic foil arranged in a grid
pattern.
• The grid pattern maximizes the amount of
metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the
parallel direction.
• The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called
the carrier, which is attached directly to the
test specimen.
• The strain experienced by the test
specimen is transferred directly to the
strain gauge, which responds with a linear
change in electrical resistance.
• Gauge factor is defined as:
Measuring Circuits

• In order to measure strain with a bonded resistance

strain gauge, it must be connected to an electric circuit
that is capable of measuring the minute changes in
resistance corresponding to strain
• Strain gauge is connected in a Wheatstone bridge
circuit
• A strain gauge bridge circuit indicates measured strain
by the degree of imbalance
• It provides an accurate measurement of that imbalance
Wheatstone Bridge
• In Figure, if R1, R2, R3, and Strain
gauge are equal, and a voltage,
VIN, is applied between points A
and C, then the output between
points B and D will show no
potential difference.
• However, if R4 is changed to some
value which does not equal R1, R2,
and R3, the bridge will become
unbalanced and a voltage will exist
at the output terminals.
• The variable strain sensor has
resistance Rg, while the other arms
are fixed value resistors.
Wheatstone Bridge

• The sensor, however, can occupy one, two, or four arms of the
bridge, depending on the application.
• The total strain, or output voltage of the circuit (Vout) is equivalent to
the difference between the voltage drop across R1 and R4, or Rg.
• It is given by Vout = Vcd – Vcb
 Wheatstone Bridge Working
• The bridge is considered balanced when R1/R2 = Rg/R3
and, therefore, VOUT equals zero.
• Any small change in the resistance of the sensing grid will
throw the bridge out of balance, making it suitable for the
detection of strain.
• A small change in Rg will result in an output voltage from
the bridge.
• If the gage factor is GF, the strain measurement is related
to the change in Rg as follows:
 Problem - Low Level Output

• The output of a strain gauge circuit is a very low-level voltage signal

• The low level of the signal makes it particularly susceptible to
unwanted noise from other electrical devices.
• Capacitive coupling caused by the lead wires' running too close to AC
power cables or ground currents are potential error sources in strain
measurement.
• Other error sources may include magnetically induced voltages when
the lead wires pass through variable magnetic fields, parasitic
(unwanted) contact resistances of lead wires, insulation failure, and
thermocouple effects at the junction of dissimilar metals.
• The sum of such interferences can result in significant signal
degradation.
Solution

• Shielding: Most electric interference and noise problems can be

solved by shielding.
• A shield around the measurement lead wires will intercept
interferences and may also reduce any errors caused by insulation
degradation.
• Shielding also will guard the measurement from capacitive coupling.
• If the measurement leads are routed near electromagnetic
interference sources such as transformers, twisting the leads will
minimize signal degradation due to magnetic induction.
• By twisting the wire, the flux-induced current is inverted and the
areas that the flux crosses cancel out.
• For industrial process applications, twisted and shielded lead wires
are used almost without exception.
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• The variation in voltage at the output of the bridge is in the
range of millivolts. It needs to be amplified in order to calculate
precise value of strain.
+vcc
3 10 K 10K
+V1 + 6

-
2 10K
-Vcc

+Vcc

500 ohms
-
2 6
Vout
+
3
-Vcc
+Vcc
10K
10K 10K
-
2 6

+V2 +
3

-Vcc

Instrumentation
Amplifier
Features of Instrumentation Amplifier

• Differential inputs helps in accurate voltage transfer

• High CMRR.
• Low offset voltage: 50uv max.
• Variable Gain.
• The gain of the instrumentation amplifier is given by Av
= 1 + (2 * R2) / Rg where R2 is 10 K ohms fixed resistor
and Rg is the gain select resistor
• Three 741 Op-amps are used to build the circuit for
instrumentation amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier and Microcontroller
Integration
• The output of the instrumentation
amplifier is connected to the
M16C/62P microcontroller.
• The ADC, converts the o/p into
digital value and the voltage read in
is displayed on the LCD display
available on M16CSKP board.
• A_D converter input port no. 10_3
is used
• The A_D converter is configured to
read in the analog value after every
1 second and is set to convert at a
resolution of 10 bits for better
precision.
Strain Measurement System

Consists Of:
Test Specimen-piece of metal
Strain gauge-placement of the
Strain Gauge on the specimen is
very crucial for precise
measurement of the strain
Wheatstone bridge
Instrumentation Amplifier
Microcontroller M16C/62P
•
Software execution
The software performs the following calculation on the digital value:-

• The value read in is converted into digital and is available in one of the
registers of the microcontroller. The ADC resolution is selected as 10 bit.
The step size thus becomes 48.8 mV.
• Multiply it by 48.8 mV to get the actual analog voltage
• Divide the analog voltage by 24(gain of the amplifier).
• Vo / Vex = (Gauge Factor * E )/2 where E is the strain in micro strain.
• E = (Vo *2 / Gauge Factor * Vex )
• = Vo / ((1.03)*(4V)) [Gauge Factor = 2.06] [Vex = 4volts]
• = Vo / 4.12 [Vo is the output of the Bridge]
• Divide the value by 4.120
• This gives the value of the strain.
• Value of the strain displayed on the LCD is refreshed every 1 second.
 Readings
• Results:
• Under no strain condition:
• Vout = 2.20volts (output of the instrumentation amplifier)
• E = 0.91 micro strain.
• Bend the test specimen both ends downwards (Elongation effect on the
Gauge)
• Vout = 2.28volts (output of the instrumentation amplifier)
• E = 0.94 micro strain.
• Bend the test specimen both ends upwards (Compression effect on the
Gauge)
• Vout = 2.16volts (output of the instrumentation amplifier)
• E = 0.89 micro strain.
Features Of Strain Measurement
System
• This system is very compatible and is cost effective.
• The microcontroller used has many other features like UART
interface which can be utilized to transfer the strain readings to a PC.
• Upcoming Project:
- A multi strain measurement system (SMS)
- Making SMS wireless
Block Diagram Of Strain Gauge Array
Measurement System
Instrumentation
1. Sensor Bridge
Amplifier

Instrumentation
Sensor Bridge
2.. Amplifier

v v
Haccom HAC
Analog multiplexer Renasas M16/C UM96
3.. Instrumentation Radio
Sensor Bridge

v v
Amplifier

0
0
0

8. Instrumentation
Sensor Bridge
Amplifier

v
Haccom HAC UM96
Radio
Renasas M16/C PC
Ultra Low Power Data Radio Module

• Ultra low power transmission – 10 mW

transmission power
• High anti-interference and low BER (Bit error
Rate)
• Long transmission distance
• Multi-channel-the standard radio module
configuration provides 8 channels
• Low power consumption and sleeping
function -receiving, current is <30mA,
transmitting current is <40mA, and sleep
current is <20uA.
• High reliability, small and light
Strain Gauge Array Measurement
System
• The advanced strain measurement system accumulates
the data from all the widespread gauges, processes the
collected data, enables wireless transmission of
collected information to the remote Data Acquisition
System.
• With the combination of low power microprocessors,
flexible software operating modes this system is
optimized for very low power operation, while
permitting high speed data logging and wireless
communication capabilities.
Applications of Strain gauge

• In load cells for weighbridges,

scales, vehicles and in medical
and educational applications.
• For monitoring structures such as
bridges and buildings.
• In research and development
applications, including
automotive, aerospace, medical,
process, oil and gas, and power
generation.
• Virtually every other sector of
industry.
References

• http://zone.ni.com/
• http://www.omega.com/
• http://www.vishay.com/
• http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/
• http://www.strain-gauges.com/